tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-31938802838787522732024-02-20T15:26:39.489+05:00Jus Contra BellumThis blog has been created to exchange news, academic and practical developments relative to the evolution of the international law of peace and armed conflict, in particular, of international humanitarian, criminal and human rights law applicable in international and non-international armed conflicts.Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.comBlogger203125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-4687651498968517002010-06-29T08:54:00.000+05:002010-06-29T08:55:38.348+05:00International Criminal Court Review Conference Resolutions<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial; border-collapse: collapse; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103515975196&s=30063&e=001hGEYprkjhxp7gBuy1Y9Ue6UezUjl5hyfG3SPaAmpcv25rN6ZMXsIViN0E8Dx6_w3p3EPyquXbepUr6vas0QibNPZUU-l1_-QJHjejOO8Yf8b9z0939BomwvKi3XlnUvwtE8ahxeeaLDOjAkIB0aSZJnMyrR1bNWr" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Click here</a> for ICC Review Conference Web site</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">The Review Conference of the Rome Statute concluded in Kampala, Uganda, on June 11, 2010. Remarkably, the Conference adopted a <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103515975196&s=30063&e=001hGEYprkjhxpuKuzuaXCwhlupx0A0WBaoOKticRnO2BU7nzomgZmhLlR-Z1z0B2VI2_VDmTPkMTWj6suAXP2LjwhEqzcXkkhdAfivQ-U38l4ybVxe1XwGAda2bihgjxopi3h3hUMQSk3eIizNi-RcS_18_NJSkhPL7CnhueYXbitsg3-fMUt6lw==" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">resolution</a> amending the Rome Statute to include a definition of the crime of aggression and provisions for activation of the Court’s jurisdiction over the crime. The definition is based on 1974 United Nations General Assembly <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103515975196&s=30063&e=001hGEYprkjhxpSlMlkm2ML78BpkCgV4BguZkseNT6RR7jT6EEYHWvF3fONXLOEbH6F5N7uCNZEBd-nrRgclWdIRa0e3uZ0FwCQtQg9mVGJeAC2Pir2CnX8zDbK2EIqh6zONSFOG3ma50EG-piLavuCttoF8XwTtAK7" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Resolution 3314</a> (XXIX). <br /><br />In addition, the States Parties adopted a <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103515975196&s=30063&e=001hGEYprkjhxqrOXtsdk4CTU5SCoTHc4uaYbo76C82fa5Zx2oeGks2PQKD8jxOAaCBNZuqKaiDLNouettSoQazDGt76ipbFQwPZODxuRMn-ilCLWTKJ6FSQCT-j0pMcaIUFuKpPSRLrREuzYOT5CbGPkiWjpgXnhAqW9qcfx-cnJR15uE-xDO50A==" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">resolution</a> amending Article 8 of the Rome Statute (allowing the Court to prosecute as a war crime the employment of certain poisonous weapons and expanding bullets, asphyxiating or poisonous gases, and all other liquids and materials, when such employment takes place in armed conflict not of an international character); and a <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103515975196&s=30063&e=001hGEYprkjhxoAR9GlZyDl6HFBViN-ctoX79YHGZruvhWl1MoSY1Z3KU5WuAaHLKulU-Ds5VhdmESlmPQ1Z77QuthV2StJwisPVlJavU4NWdQV31-pKkmsV_5TEjpMtadkbhYjG6PfKV13D5ooBbXw_BAQ9SvtrgzKDqxccmlB5Ms7ke8PcRJBqg==" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">resolution</a> preserving in its current form Article 124, which allows new States Parties to exclude for seven years from the Court’s jurisdiction war crimes allegedly committed by its nationals or on its territory, but agreeing to review its provisions at the 14th session of the Assembly of States Parties. <br /><br />Other notable resolutions adopted at the Conference include a <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103515975196&s=30063&e=001hGEYprkjhxq0ylWl4G4l37Zv8e6-t3huFJ5_4KbyCtlG-VCjqMgRYxi6nBTqwy_xl-a3d-hrDQjy_cQ6-09X_2gbR_ydR9XGcOJQawrmVT62cYQhX9b5BHdEzQs5oNzbV7tsw3Qf7-AIlcvSGZStC9MN1GptveTrSt08EF3a_HWGCAGCr47nlQ==" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">resolution</a> regarding the impact of the Rome Statute system on victims and affected communities; a <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103515975196&s=30063&e=001hGEYprkjhxpOwr6L6c6Np7YbkyS3EGo_McvUYMIsKmTfcMDlQ_NbGh-KnYrM2vzEDlSoueuqvzpfBYPeTb6RKO09iARrx7F-yMCwsPcXrITRAPNN1rP9TDdxEFS2kwkf7vd3qSDDbvN4IhD02-1w4GXU8HXIg7M7Ho-mbTMgO0EqR1Kf40SAoQ==" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">resolution</a> dealing with complementarity; and a <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103515975196&s=30063&e=001hGEYprkjhxo5Xn9sZHpAy5T7ZuU4x_E3X9iOHC7ptdby59CxLfSB0_ha8mG8leLXO8tJ6A7YE1cWK9MylIslLp8fZi2pYNZTs8-mlTW_niIi59YudSCG_Cwcm3SOk6a-lE75GSh6V8emqrDeHE3nP26hVjmYZ4d1HTrF_N95ZwuZiEudRz6hmA==" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">resolution</a> on the enforcement of sentences. <br /><br />For more detailed information about the ICC Review Conference, check out the <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103515975196&s=30063&e=001hGEYprkjhxqRDmMzwNRbDxiRqj7LxMLOUgLy0UPMdj4H9cHsyo9xgV0hMmS6xxXaN6bGqN_C-IiHGqddvyhpnTj-ZzHw44o-Yo0-7rpGqHiy-HNgSBsgpxtTSRj0FUixNHJAYuuWq0M=" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">ASIL Insight</a> by David Scheffer on this topic. See also the ASIL ICC Review Conference <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103515975196&s=30063&e=001hGEYprkjhxrjPSA9w2GL0OJX0EIetQrkBpA1eeAA7K68VpZg7TKcf8QwSETtP7FKsh8uxISfvWirO5NFHR04YGdS2OHdXABH_nAF84rvMtEwy3rEj4_igcXVLmTRV7QV" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">blog</a>.</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">Source: ASIL</p></span>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-44906220938248699482010-06-12T10:13:00.002+05:002010-06-12T10:17:36.396+05:00United Nations Security Council Presidential Statement on Israeli Operation against Gaza-Bound Aid Convoy (1 June 2010)<span class="Apple-style-span" style=" border-collapse: collapse; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; font-family:Arial;font-size:12px;"><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103473963245&s=30063&e=001JQtllvu1m9blJUfTfo6LrMGNV6SkGhClcKQXsfsbc4FbNx_md4uVKbbogkc9UupJYGzQr9LkKiyku5PRbBXv1L7pbsE7fBufvC0MBqCRQ9jU2WTnZ3TH-Cn7klpsAJ3hE3-p9omm4_LCWmvJD6xFCBJVQC2K9veeZlgxwon9qXJX1W7hS0X5dQ==" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(131, 164, 245); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Click here</a> for document (approximately 1 page)</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">In an emergency session, convened in the hours following the Israeli military operation in international waters against six ships carrying humanitarian aid to Gaza, which led to the death of ten civilians and the wounding of many others, the Security Council issued a presidential statement condemning the loss of life and expressing deep regrets regarding the use of force.<br /><br />The Security Council also called for the “immediate release” of the seized ships and the civilians in Israeli custody. Finally, the Security Council called “for a prompt, impartial, credible and transparent investigation conforming to international standards.”<br /><br />The blockade of Gaza, which was strengthened in 2007 when Hamas came into power, has been criticized by the international community, including the Security Council, as being unsustainable. Following a global outcry in the aftermath of the flotilla incident, Israel has reportedly eased the blockade, allowing necessary humanitarian aid to enter Gaza.</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">Source: ASIL</p></span>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-26288687765062012192010-06-12T10:12:00.000+05:002010-06-12T10:13:32.092+05:00EU – US 2010 Declaration on Counterterrorism (3 June 2010)<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial; border-collapse: collapse; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103473963245&s=30063&e=001JQtllvu1m9YU7-aZdTODQaroHmEooZI2tWFq1pYvHdqIF_ireKfIuYQ7VpFTFlz_bowsZCY1fvyAUM3aTaIi_8QkLkA3y7PCJ5rVtVUZyrn4CrwK9koHcxVdWxUSK8mnJ7N35epp-YSsATfJEOYJmDNwAOOM2lYT5vfBeCkxsBYDe_2c7kg56yKI8nhCUS_Qn7BWybAWmWE=" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(131, 164, 245); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Click here</a> for document (approximately 3 pages)</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">The United States and the European Union (including its Member States) have issued a declaration detailing several measures necessary in “forging a durable framework to combat terrorism within the rule of law.”<br /><br />The declaration emphasizes the need to ensure that all measures taken by the two parties are “in accord with . . . fundamental values and with full respect for the sovereignty of nations and the rule of law.” Notably, both parties reaffirmed their commitment “to implement prohibitions on torture, as well as on cruel, inhuman and degrading treatment and punishment.” Also significant is the parties’ commitment to ensure that terrorist suspects receive a fair and effective trial, “within a legal framework that provides for meaningful due process rights.” Finally, the declaration stresses the need to avoid racial, ethnic, and/or religious discrimination in combating terrorism. With respect to this latter commitment, the Spanish Interior Minister Alfredo Rubalcaba, whose country currently chairs the European Union, declared that “[t]his declaration is a message to the Muslim world . . . . We will be firm in the defence of our values, but we will show our tolerance vis-à-vis other cultures.”</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">Source: ASIL</p></span>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-40681698503853962442010-05-28T15:59:00.002+05:002010-05-28T16:03:35.312+05:00ASIL Insight: The First Review Conference of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal CourtThe First Review Conference of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court<br /><br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#author" rel="nofollow">By David Kaye </a><br /><br />Introduction<br /><br />Twelve years ago this summer, hundreds of delegations—from governments, non-governmental organizations, international organizations and elsewhere—cheered the establishment of the first permanent international criminal court in Rome. At the time, Rome Conference Chairman Philippe Kirsch exulted to the Conference newspaper, Terraviva: "This is an extraordinary moment, a historical moment. I am not sure to what extent those present here know how important this is for the future of humankind."<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[1]</a> Much has happened in the years since Rome to clarify the significance of that moment. The Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (ICC) entered into force in 2002.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[2]</a> The ICC has become a fully operational tribunal, seeking the arrests of individuals from Uganda, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Sudan and the Central African Republic, launching an investigation in Kenya, examining other situations and beginning three trials.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[3]</a> It not only seeks to hold accountable those it accuses of war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide; it has become an actor in domestic and international politics, in the countries where it pursues cases and in those countries that are non-States Parties anxious about the reach of its jurisdiction.<br /><br />From May 30th to June 11th, the 111 States Parties to the Rome Statute—along with observer delegations from non-States Parties, NGOs, civil society, and others—will have an opportunity to assess the development of the ICC over the past decade when they gather in Kampala, Uganda, to hold their first Review Conference. While the Conference will take stock of the progress of the Court in a variety of areas and consider a handful of proposals on other matters, the negotiation of an amendment to add aggression as a crime under ICC jurisdiction promises to overshadow all else. At the same time, the United States will participate as an observer, bringing to Kampala not only a new level of American engagement and support but also strong opposition to any resolution of the aggression issue that fails to give the United Nations Security Council a pivotal role. All the while, the absence from the Court’s detention facility in The Hague of several high-profile accused individuals—such as Sudan’s President Omar Hasan al-Bashir and the Ugandan Lord’s Resistance Army’s Josephy Kony—will serve as a reminder that States Parties still have some distance to go before the Court operates as a credible response to mass atrocities.<br />This Insight takes an advance look at key issues on the agenda at Kampala.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[4]</a><br /><br />Aggression<br /><br />Under the Rome Statute, the ICC may now exercise jurisdiction over three categories of crimes: genocide, crimes against humanity, and war crimes. The Court may not exercise jurisdiction over a fourth crime, aggression, until the State Parties adopt a provision "defining the crime and setting out the conditions under which the Court shall exercise jurisdiction with respect to this crime."<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[5]</a><br /><br />Aggression has a distinguished pedigree in international law, principally dating from the immediate aftermath of World War II. The United Nations Charter grants the Security Council the power to determine the occurrence of an act of aggression.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[6]</a> While the General Assembly adopted a Definition of Aggression in 1974,<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[7]</a> the Security Council itself has never defined the term. The Charter of the International Military Tribunal (IMT) at Nuremberg designated a "war of aggression" as a crime against peace,<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[8]</a> while the IMT for the Far East, the Tokyo Tribunal, similarly defined as a crime against peace "a declared or undeclared war of aggression."<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[9]</a> Both the Nuremberg and Tokyo Tribunals convicted several high-ranking German and Japanese leaders, respectively, of the crime of aggression (and acquitted several others). Since that time, a number of international instruments have restated the criminality of aggression.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[10]</a> However, the international criminal tribunals since Nuremberg and Tokyo have not followed their steps, instead possessing jurisdiction only over war crimes, crimes against humanity, and genocide.<br /><br />Notwithstanding its place in the post-war pantheon of international crimes, aggression was among the key controversies at the Rome Conference in 1998, and participants in Rome were unable to reach agreement on its definition or the mechanism to trigger the Court’s jurisdiction.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[11]</a> Since 2002, States Parties and others (including non-party governments and NGOs) participated in a working group (known as the "Princeton Process") to develop a consensus definition of aggression and the conditions under which the Court may exercise jurisdiction. Several prominent non-States Parties, including China, participated in these discussions; however, the Bush Administration decided that the United States would not participate. In the absence of the United States, participants achieved a definition for which a consensus has seemingly emerged. However, they failed to achieve consensus with respect to jurisdiction.<br />The proposed definition provides a substantive legal definition of the crime of aggression as<br />the planning, preparation, initiation or execution, by a person in a position effectively to exercise control over or to direct the political or military action of a State, of an act of aggression which, by its character, gravity and scale, constitutes a manifest violation of the Charter of the United Nations.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[12]</a><br /><br />The proposal defines an act of aggression as "the use of armed force by a State against the sovereignty, territorial integrity or political independence of another State, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Charter of the United Nations."<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[13]</a> Modeled on the UN General Assembly’s 1974 Definition of Aggression, the proposal provides a list of seven acts that qualify as acts of aggression.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[14]</a><br /><br />The proposal is arguably consistent with contemporary understandings of the jus ad bellum.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[15]</a> Yet much remains open to interpretation. For instance, how serious must an act of aggression be to merit ICC attention? To what extent would humanitarian justifications of force, such as those envisaged by the Responsibility to Protect,<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[16]</a> be taken into account by the Court? Would the Court consider the examples of aggressive force illustrative or exhaustive?<br /><br />Jurisdiction presents a much more serious obstacle to adoption of an aggression amendment. States and NGOs broadly agree that the Court could exercise jurisdiction where the Security Council has already determined an act of aggression (assuming all other elements required for jurisdiction are met). They differ over whether such a determination should be required before the Court may open an investigation, as the permanent Security Council members desire. The Review Conference will need to determine whether a Security Council trigger is required or whether other mechanisms—such as the Prosecutor’s independent powers or a General Assembly referral—might enable the initiation of an investigation.<br /><br />One alternative to the Security Council requirement would be to require the "aggressor State" to consent to ICC jurisdiction, which would achieve the functional equivalent of a Security Council trigger for the Council’s permanent members (assuming they would not provide such consent). Still, a large plurality of States Parties oppose such a requirement. A poll of States Parties during the March resumed session of the Assembly of States Parties (ASP) indicated continued lack of consensus, with the vast majority of delegations opposing the Security Council requirement.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[17]</a><br />The Obama administration clearly is anxious about the Kampala outcome; it undoubtedly wishes to support the ICC, but a negative outcome on aggression (from its perspective) could conceivably undermine such engagement. The U.S. Ambassador at Large for War Crimes Issues, Stephen J. Rapp, told the ASP in November in The Hague that "[o]ur view has been and remains that . . . jurisdiction should follow a Security Council determination that aggression has occurred."<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[18]</a> State Department Legal Adviser Harold Koh amplified this position in March, indicating that the Obama Administration strongly favors the requirement of a Security Council trigger and casting doubt on the compatibility of the definition with customary international law.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[19]</a> France and the United Kingdom—the two permanent Security Council members that are parties to the Rome Statute—share the U.S. jurisdictional concerns, but whether they can find a creative solution that meets everyone’s needs remains to be seen.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[20]</a><br /><br />After several years of negotiations, States Parties have found resolution of the jurisdictional issues to be elusive. In this light, it may well be that the Review Conference will fail to conclude the aggression negotiations. One possibility might involve a piecemeal approach: the adoption of a definition but the deferral of the negotiations over jurisdiction, thereby keeping aggression out of the ICC until some later negotiation. It is uncertain whether such an approach would be acceptable to those States strongly supportive of adding the crime of aggression to the Rome Statute.<br /><br />The War Crimes Opt-out<br /><br />Article 124 of the Rome Statute enables a party to opt out of the war crimes jurisdiction of the Court (Article 8) for an initial period of seven years after the entry into force of the Statute for that party. It also mandates a review of the opt-out by the Review Conference. France strongly sought this provision in Rome in 1998, but it withdrew its opt-out declaration in 2008. Colombia is the only other country to have exercised the opt-out, but its declaration expired this fall. The opt-out was highly controversial in Rome, but its impact has been minimal. Given the limited use of the provision, State Parties will have difficulty arguing that retaining Article 124 will entice non-parties to ratify the Rome Statute. Thus far, States Parties acknowledge the limited value of Article 124, but whether a consensus in favor of its deletion has emerged remains unclear.<br /><br />Proposed Amendments<br /><br />States Parties have proposed a number of amendments to the Rome Statute. Mexico proposed the criminalization of the use or threat of use of nuclear weapons.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[21]</a> The Netherlands proposed a new Rome Statute crime of terrorism.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[22]</a> Norway proposed new language to deal with the enforcement of sentences.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[23]</a> Trinidad and Tobago proposed jurisdiction over drug offenses.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[24]</a> South Africa and the African Union, reflecting their opposition to the arrest warrant for Sudanese President al-Bashir, proposed amending Article 16 to make it easier for outside parties to seek the deferral of a case pending before the Court.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[25]</a> None of these amendments will be subject to formal discussion at the Review Conference, as the ASP decided to establish working groups to develop each of these proposals at subsequent meetings of States Parties.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[26]</a><br />One proposal by Belgium will be considered by the Review Conference.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[27]</a> The proposal would extend the criminalization in international armed conflict of three existing categories of weapons – poison and poisoned weapons, gases, and certain kinds of long-prohibited bullets – to non-international armed conflict. The proposal has received broad support among States Parties but very little substantive discussion; unless serious concerns are raised, it should be a strong candidate for adoption in Kampala.<br /><br />Stocktaking<br /><br />In addition to the treaty-based work, the Review Conference will hold a number of "stocktaking" sessions. As currently conceived, the exercise will involve a review of the complementarity regime, the Statutory mechanism by which the Court defers to ongoing investigations and prosecutions in domestic tribunals; cooperation with the Court; the ICC’s impact on victims and affected communities; and the interaction of "peace and justice."<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[28]</a> The sessions will be designed around keynotes and panels of experts on the four topics. Although it is difficult to predict, it seems unlikely that the stocktaking exercise will amount to a probing review of the ICC’s strengths and weaknesses in these areas and lead to concrete recommendations and proposals.<br /><br />Conclusion<br /><br />The ICC Review Conference is likely to involve hard work (especially on the definition of aggression), workaday treaty considerations (focusing on the war crimes opt-out and the Belgian proposal), and assessment (stocktaking). Amidst this busy schedule, the Court, States Parties, and NGOs should not shy away from critically reflecting on what the Court has done right and wrong over the past several years. The Review Conference provides an important moment to examine the Court’s performance to ensure that it is fulfilling objectives established more than a decade ago.<br /><br />The Review Conference, of course, also presents an opportunity for the United States to take stock of its own relationship to the Court. The Obama administration has already advanced the relationship with a concrete proposal to meet with the chief prosecutor to find where it might make contributions.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_edn1" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[29]</a> The aggression negotiations, however, guarantee that the new relationship will have elements of disharmony, as U.S. Government representatives will likely push hard for a required Security Council trigger. The administration will face pressure in Washington to step away from a new era of cooperation with the Court if the aggression negotiations lead to a bad result from the U.S. perspective. In that sense, the stakes in Kampala are high, providing a key test not only for U.S. policy but for the future of the institution and international justice.<br /><br /><a rel="nofollow" name="author"></a>About the Author:<br /><br />David Kaye, a member of the ASIL Executive Council and co-editor of the Insight series, is Executive Director of the International Human Rights Program at UCLA School of Law. He led a team of six UCLA Law School students in the School’s International Justice Clinic to the ASP Meeting in The Hague in November.<br /><br />Endnotes<br /><br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref1" rel="nofollow" name="_edn1">[1]</a> See And They Took It, TERRAVIVA: CONF. DAILY NEWSPAPER, available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzA4LzpflImb_cokdAbq1KA_WmJwJaQokzPYAKexfBXkMkoPF4K7J2PRmypxUFIHd1Ym4tmavf1bz_JU2XCY0Hegrqd75yIj8syevJLVKXJ3DNC4VLpGOnNMA0CdJqKqkWo=" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.ips.org/icc/tv180701.htm</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref2" rel="nofollow" name="_edn2">[2]</a> Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, July 17, 1998, 2187 U.N.T.S. 3 (entered into force July 1, 2002), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzDzIi29EoUROIJHRrxRvCLwLrS89FOBrtQDtBDuIpzvgbMcasL5Huu3kL72atzSCO1NNIFMCN5f_gu8t6ihA-e2P8HhT2VavFct_ebyDOtE6iZJVaVDisK1z2z8z7cznShv8AdqzDYE25qtJG765ORL" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://untreaty.un.org/cod/icc/statute/romefra.htm</a> [hereinafter Rome Statute].<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref3" rel="nofollow" name="_edn3">[3]</a> Basic information on current ICC activities may be found at the ICC web site, Situations and Cases, <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzDMnFVY3Dp6Q3_E6MQHReYGpbdIJMd-V430VRIC0xFYR43YE-gETKq1YplDet40i0XahLdNm7EDFG0t5znVEgFMomZCBXzyPJXwnZlXEkQK_4ZlNcEEzT1VtLOn-vxL-eZKM8jRgQjaU_xo8aULiZTdfg6Dhqck_zg=" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.icc-cpi.int/Menus/ICC/Situations+and+Cases/</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref4" rel="nofollow" name="_edn4">[4]</a> For more detailed analysis of the Review Conference, see UCLA School of Law, International Justice Clinic, The Road to Kampala: U.S. Participation in the Review Conference of the International Criminal Court (Apr. 2010), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzDThWSlPAt7GBVyYAPIpOY1cdKzmFzarQe3-Z4Be0PgYOERWvqb2t8UwLGWOtz4kugxz0QeegBQXEZRsvXIJ4dau8_h_qafdPL0Sox2PmthUjZujRf5yPwP" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://law.ucla.edu/humanrights</a>; and Vijay Padmanabhan, From Rome to Kampala: The U.S. Approach to the 2010 International Criminal Court Review Conference, Council on Foreign Relations Special Report (Apr. 2010), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzDkrwQXlleesBmcSmVNqw3MTNyAIZ3ECSHd4C7naWI5GIt3EMqDoIC2hJSA4h6ZVkdhK9fuT_BNpZekSFfq-aJXWXHAIuIUZy2zL1NCaWkAmrV-lXG0c0KCwj498kRqoYu9mBCrtngQ-P3-0uL8idnrUTgwk6GH8_fodkp3spxnWA==" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">https://secure.www.cfr.org/publication/21934/from_rome_to_kampala.html</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[5]</a> Rome Statute, supra note 2, art. 5(2).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[6]</a> UN Charter art. 39.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[7]</a> See G.A. Res. 3314, U.N. GAOR 29th Sess., Supp. No. 31, U.N. Do. A/9631 (Dec. 14, 1974).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[8]</a> Agreement for the Prosecution and Punishment of the Major War Criminals of the European Axis, and Charter of the International Military Tribunal, Aug. 8, 1945, 82 U.N.T.C. 280, available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzBj2O14XpVVw4m6rLNwPt3cVlHmpYZTStnFXU_DToxke8FFD27CISqunyxEUGqF__CaRAtnA2poIZOnU9qnmJxQuUoEeSCBTXNxUZSpHDjH1cBtyhyUrFQUDcAXhZkb2rUkjgUHN8oTNhO6cNA84_A_" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.icrc.org/ihl.nsf/FULL/350?OpenDocument</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[9]</a> Charter of the International Military Tribunal for the Far East art. 5(a).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[10]</a> See YORAM DINSTEIN, WAR, AGGRESSION AND SELF-DEFENCE 112-113 (3rd ed. 2001).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[11]</a> For a brief overview of the aggression negotiations at Rome, see Herman von Hebel & Darryl Robinson, Crimes within the Jurisdiction of the Court, in THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: THE MAKING OF THE ROME STATUTE 79, 81-85 (Roy S. Lee ed., 1999).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[12]</a> Proposal of Amendment by Liechtenstein, U.N. Doc. C.N.727.2009.TREATIES-7 (Oct. 29, 2009), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzCTXRry2Cidwjw9WW7k7RVEupoa5tzl4gue_K98XWFrfJ406RBENyw5DzY4c3icCiouAE8wtx_7sFsV9_8AavklnfEAQZNWNHjZppTULGzb67tsZma9PHfGGocCkNtafOBaGXTbxd-cYYfr9zI1ogJs8SiSrq4gqeY=" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.adh-geneva.ch/RULAC/news/LiechtensteinCN727EN.pdf</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[13]</a> Id.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[14]</a> Id.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[15]</a> But see Michael J. Glennon, The Blank-Prose Crime of Aggression, 35 Yale J. Int’l L. 71 (2010), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzBMHCyV_l6cqSdUXSIpyNYjneJOjvN7tEr9uIyyI2YQJdgrNr8rngpCgjPrRNrV6EGk75jgjaNiIbJCuHaFaL_RdjGieXNDuYDFdfX3CbXfO4CvgDyYmfj3uOguJaRsa6AaG3iLS4sDg_2SFURH1xFI1VSgQ0mXlAc8Ky0Z0JB5pui9XBtXY4Igzw2gOM_JcAe9MQ54HQZtr23ZRk5jP6LGWP_AA7JnlQC67ZHt1M3wcAjHkCT9iS8kppDu6UN6dm0=" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.yjil.org/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=130:blank-prose-crime-of-aggression&catid=6:archives</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[16]</a> <a rel="nofollow" name="OLE_LINK2"></a><a rel="nofollow" name="OLE_LINK1">G.A. Res. A/RES/60/1, ¶ 138, U.N. Doc. A/RES/60/1 (Oct. 24, 2005); and S.C. Res. 1674, ¶ 4, U.N. Doc. S/RES/1674 (Apr. 28, 2006) (the Security Council reaffirmed the provisions of paragraphs 138 and 139 of the 2005 World Summit Outcome Document regarding the responsibility to protect).</a><br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[17]</a> A discussion of the various options now on the table for jurisdictional purposes may be found at Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, Resumed 8th Sess., Annex II: Report of the Working Group of the Review Conference, ICC-ASP/8/20/Add.1, at 42-45, 49-52, (Mar. 22 – 25, 2010), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzA-Ds_ksmtdErPDu_LsdkxPr6ilRWTEmjUOc6KPgIfKmZZ2bY_A_DK867fk3FjWiIie2n2uLi-VjKQicSMKwa-Vv3vMWqGJrrrVQJmqEy9VggmUajMjvcDHKvwFSwLknXSLIHvtrlUi8oq9GFxRd0MZf58rnsDiOruOFCxj_unpeklMndkGcNQin8WFwC5M-XK5IHONTlOsRPx8W6YGq00G" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/C125A0AE-9069-45CE-80F6-75665F6619E4/0/ORASPR8ENGANNEXES.pdf</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[18]</a> Stephen J. Rapp, Ambassador at Large for War Crimes Issues, Speech to the Assembly of States Parties (Nov. 19, 2009), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzDINbKeQBk7DBLjQ_Ye8wYJSmF_MWcIRE5COCIFP3zni8-eFuD6cJ31D6NXifAGWo9LUbw-IC8uc6EwBQl6ARbjgz0H4QCyY_ci40uKuzJRXehbQtbstCin8ShNdpHN5ICHjX72Um9THCVkKLegBSdkQrQLFuNdvi6jJrUr44DqLeLztnRW4IzALkJEyk_kIbemgn8fl1mlbQ==" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/ASP8/Statements/ICC-ASP-ASP8-GenDeba-USA-ENG.pdf</a>. <br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[19]</a> See Harold H. Koh, Legal Advisor U.S. Dept. of State, Statement Regarding Crime of Aggression at the Resumed Eighth Session of the Assembly of States Parties of the International Criminal Court (Mar. 23, 2010), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzBhiSnoVrzJ-dbAi9Qr16jSrJ6ko6gyL4IM0D4pt17xfbTk2kjStmuQVoLJ3_waTw763jUW0Yk6Q_ba3KLxBbauRaP4WxaM7Jap4lhuhuHjQgo1eSHvnjVCQlmGVjIAOT8RqPi6cDLiyI_YoVnGDFNuhQ2yTBHZk34=" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://usun.state.gov/briefing/statements/2010/139000.htm</a>; and Harold H. Koh, Obama Administration and International Law, Speech at the Annual Meeting of the Am. Soc. Int’l L. (Mar. 25, 2010), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzAMFbjIlzpbIQ6-EZkeLY9cYarjjJBLHkTsi2K0AScqAFXU9j8iWwFRYOFXm30jC3KoxCPTpN4F4RXyt5doP35uAPjvOkPQSZug1Q0D7kQxsXGafvt76mHPixZ_hkjjkyzbLiI3xnW-epw85KftgPqm" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.state.gov/s/l/releases/remarks/139119.htm</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[20]</a> For a discussion of the debate over the modality for adoption and entry-into-force of an aggression amendment, see The Road to Kampala, supra note 4, at 13-14.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[21]</a> Proposal of Amendment by Mexico, U.N. Doc. C.N.725.2009.TREATIES-6 (Oct. 29, 2009), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzAC4Bqo7JfTAg8uecVz1cu-E7uFpXiC-vlhJK-9a0GYxkd2Os78Q6-X4TUiyVF3OWmVjAIH-XyACZCldyGFSOpQF9Koq5BBdRtSZTdBsAhtmIO9trJXcO9m7muQt0mtXKH7W8GD1Z9xILf7Yj-RdQZ_7t7XqQOupPCDCvj939weH25ZX8b6zyT_23jzvE_9Ccax9KXW_rRP5Q==" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/4420B7E1-F93D-4D08-AF5C-3B07C1C3E6F1/0/MexicoCN725EN.pdf</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[22]</a> Proposal of Amendment by The Netherlands, U.N. Doc. C.N.723.2009.TREATIES-5 (Oct. 29, 2009), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzCP_31kNS7uKZYsEFcDMzBv2cmOGwpewH9ytxl2c9RxFdv3Gz6ploRbe1-n1pkzWGWtLnehrc_AtsUitOa0ezDBzShIpXGhYn05cOrgW8VErrhNlR4b8TAm3ShkMYTE-O62j87-F88vUsC8OrhOgsg5aNLTe4M0x30=" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.adh-geneva.ch/RULAC/news/NetherlandsCN723EN.pdf</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[23]</a> Proposal of Amendment by Norway, U.N. Doc. C.N.713.2009.TREATIES-4 (Oct. 29, 2009), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzAqIzhT0XJh8Vxezn3tkmHHfAN9FwJhw__ryaLFgTZBGQli1ZnqQmmnanGIZ4QbNwdY9HZe-LRQnqgpLw2gdnnsvs29m_j6BIbuxJJnFQtfrMK87cJru4xjFNe7o4xzNjy7l1IfXrNjI6CuqIzLE_ngEHTn3NxLBj1jFyeR7x8eM2M5FvYwrYLXaVqojSKu_83rUuclgxukkQ==" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/C6E2893C-D4BD-4DD2-8F70-63D220190D9F/0/NorwayCN713EN.pdf</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[24]</a> Proposal of Amendment by Trinidad and Tobago, U.N. Doc. C.N.737.2009.TREATIES-9 (Oct. 29, 2009), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzBxOKC8tQJkvX1H_nNQG5v4mtymmhRtmdqYw2t3IkontJwjiQH5049kIpSaLErM76fzYXYQCYntOLZf2wh18TR0btwt19jkxH5LwGmy-NB77K8o4ZK8Kk-KIS0A-Mwj1Gn7PFiafh_DcFyxJG-Vl6XxyCpGddUmDOV_YPH7Fm5FyvkpECoPQvf5F2bsvk47hHv_aGyhhYm71Wzj3U7NI8Ka" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/03DAF164-78C7-4129-A0BD-91534F80BF81/0/TrinidadTobagoCN737EN.pdf</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[25]</a> Proposal of amendment by South Africa, C.N.851.2009.TREATIES.10 (Nov. 30, 2009).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[26]</a> Press Release, Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court [ASP], Assembly of States Parties Concludes its Eighth Session, ICC-ASP-20091126-PR481 (Nov. 27, 2009), available at http://www.icc-cpi.int/menus/asp/press%20releases/press%20releases%202009/assembly%20of%20states%20parties%20concludes%20its%20eighth%20session.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[27]</a> See Resolutions Adopted by the Assembly of States Parties, ICC/ASP/8-20, Annex III, at 41, Belgium: Proposal of Amendment, available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzCKBW3qJ-qx-yCr-VveC5ehtVqkyeoKZ6H05tTpQIHq28hIt3pqn264zNO26mmKrXYdqdcq0ehsjQlFAheXcAjdeil35HnKj7nccvBJ-WIJRArXwxU9OSBd6OFYBhyV39byRyY4WFcmfqZ2R5TmoHb3RUKIKKCRTYtVDDn5rewBkociOsnZmLj9MIS0tc8HM2Q=" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/ASP8/OR/OR-ASP8-Vol.I-ENG.Part.II.pdf</a>; see also a fuller Belgian proposal dealing with additional categories of weapons, not forwarded to the Review Conference, U.N. Doc. C.N.733.2009.TREATIES-8 (Oct. 29, 2009), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzBN8LwoxLALCTA-LZSlxwaUSeoGk8siCsd-m7INPowUHSZlM41rbst9Kx6jpjFv9s1UZd3FWZbV3K0Kdm4gBPOzMwAb6n1VTAHwrFQ8fLe3OsuBRkyzPc1HyssYtFWfFsxwmuLe1g7Ph-5OcS2CBZPEjy3xNRCyO_4sotMiXY65r4nFhSriiubcmKd9hrVuckKEEQ1oprZnCdshsQ-fnL8h" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/3798777A-F998-4B22-9F3D-5B25940CD299/0/BelgiumCN733EN.pdf</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[28]</a> See Res. ICC-ASP/8/Res.9 (Mar. 25, 2010), available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzDIJT9ILGN8H-mvql_nyCcQl2dY1ORjFexGSRvVb06fRmiHO1qskivn1mu8TIhH9LtJj9xO1jJFD1ozEEMZV6a-egKpSSHls-u8TlcpWKQjMotZ95cLKFWZ9xRXfdmlPeqsgvPCD8z1ah_qwADQivVGLGHeqJm4Qqoh1Rsj90uMaDMA7_9lQaxe" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.icc-cpi.int/iccdocs/asp_docs/Resolutions/ICC-ASP-8-Res.9-ENG.pdf</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1275028251&.rand=fg2dir1l60ucp#_ednref5" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[29]</a> See Stephen J. Rapp, U.S. Ambassador at Large for War Crimes Issues, Statement Regarding Stocktaking at the Eighth Resumed Session of the Assembly of States Parties of the International Criminal Court (Mar. 23, 2010) available at <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103404315697&s=30063&e=001qukID6IuwzANHNpaq5IS3gvc5agqYWjzDuEss4WDRKdTFWMOOkG9Egey4a4rIhq75UOY14pnL-ZD9wNEki6cu778DPFyNh7ks4VBSs8hz-v-o4AX0JLy-ojNw2BjVzXIlPN7gtiRL_SILRQpj7KexZjqc7l3G-0mzFE1sgSWJ6E=" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://usun.state.gov/briefing/statements/2010/138999.htm</a>.Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-86857235512406943712010-04-13T09:35:00.001+05:002010-04-13T09:36:30.978+05:00Decision Pursuant to Art. 15 of the ICC Statute on the Authorization of an Investigation into the Situation in the Republic of Kenya (31 March 2010)<a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103289218133&s=30063&e=001sSPXMq1_AIKGJsDdgUq9H0dEBgiWSmg5Qfk1aTdvEa1JJRMajXSw9VG75OBC41_M91s7fii6XGVCFdNiBR6_07_kcIbdO-1jxWscynPjyFEKmWsYTEGxSSo4sfV-g1DJjfPbmgJ0tXoN8P_TfxldKg==" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">Click here</a> for document (approximately 163 pages)<br /><br />The Pre-Trial Chamber II of the International Criminal Court recently granted the Prosecutor’s request to commence an investigation of crimes against humanity allegedly committed in Kenya.<br /><br />The majority concluded that the evidence presented by the Prosecution, along with the lower standard of proof applicable at this particular stage, provided reasonable basis to believe that crimes against humanity were committed in Kenya. This decision clears the way for the Prosecution to investigate crimes against humanity committed between 1 June 2005 (date on which Kenya became a state party to the Rome Statute) and 26 November 2009 (date on which the Prosecutor filed the request to investigate).<br /><br />Judge Hans-Peter Kaul strongly dissented. He believed that the crimes committed in Kenya in relation to the post-election violence of 2007–2008 did not qualify as crimes against humanity under the Court’s statute. As such, he noted, the Court lacked jurisdiction.Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-26821829582714124242010-04-13T09:31:00.000+05:002010-04-13T09:33:42.423+05:00Treaty and Protocol Between the US and Russia on Measures for the Further Reduction and Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms (8 April 2010)<a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103289218133&s=30063&e=001sSPXMq1_AIIPa5uXy9AIW2XxVtTMj1hJ0pFTl0jKM7VI8u_Xzu163109c0KhWBcbsxcpwPMHNEE1Qe4DE5eF3evpDvYSruBSuS-wVEfgHfCZNmY2-AMgrhAL4VS-0ekH6JJL75-s9MakpE7UY7zed9fwY6tZQo7S" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">Click here</a> for Treaty (approximately 17 pages); <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103289218133&s=30063&e=001sSPXMq1_AIJ2yFVxZh92MbdNTuKRM0MYcqkxVzWfi_HIwh_zz0bDqSG3VS_SQ_WolQgxUAqFEvob3YibehSH__GHtJ6hekuLmyhHHMwPWWwNF7c3i276RoeRhsfbO06_8PpV7tty8KRDHMpT85qJ1yXzWeMHBaNA" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">click here</a> for Protocol (approximately 165 pages)<br /><br />The United States and Russia have signed a nuclear-arms-reduction treaty in Prague, thus agreeing to reduce and limit their “strategic offensive arms” arsenals. If ratified, the agreement will remain in force for ten years “unless it is superseded earlier by a subsequent agreement on the reduction and limitation of strategic offensive arms”.<br /><br />The parties also agreed that the right to withdraw from the treaty will be triggered if either party determines that “extraordinary events” jeopardize their “supreme interest”.<br /><br /><a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103289218133&s=30063&e=001sSPXMq1_AIJlz_W-AaFYir3R3G4Qc3WMWqEjhm-WjjaiQxMbmVp-rVoPOoIdPkLQDFVcsVR_iGIzcJE_-gr9t5i3ncT-RVcm41Fcm2ucpU1UVmG8kho7FcS9mDp3Z931QrW0Jt--96xXyJyrRWvz7JfM5lKYVW1H0iOz5GR1dvxiz0nIVEPGcIlZlDX7VXhTDK8CQENaqAU=" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">Times Online</a> reports that the agreement would require Russia and the United States, “holders of more than 90 per cent of the world’s nuclear weapons – to slash their respective arsenals by about a third and reduce launchers by a half within seven years”.<br /><br />Another issue that the treaty does not discuss but that the parties will inevitably face is disposal of the nuclear arms. According to a <a href="http://r20.rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1103289218133&s=30063&e=001sSPXMq1_AIIzc2-zl3UpcfYc5KV-bgoxiD-op_G5Qtq2v7rWH7Z3R_VBTLAknwDmbTmca0vnK_y2m3EX4ZrPx18xbKsS0ryAMYnP-g3gZCVHvqZRlhFeBxYpG_M0NWaN9UB5UhdLVKIsv_wI75cgVnL9eX3635wOe1NvwSK1NfBq8nIikB9WHAo93YCWanRxraFHq0R9Qe0FNOkRe32iOXsTjCjA_nl3wJbfiC3VKxonFtBbgZ9R429X9bOUVe9MWHPLm_RZTJkd8VT_R52OPJ125Rx_2BJwtNs-4-eMZNyBT5kKm_814un9GJG1xS_rYYYA7rXOE1w=" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">NY Times article</a>, “[t]he plutonium that is the key ingredient in thousands of nuclear weapons sidelined in the new arms control treaty between the United States and Russia is likely to be around for decades at least, according to experts”.<br /><br /><br />Source: American Society of International LawSergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-58631302137986403832010-02-18T12:18:00.001+05:002010-02-18T12:34:47.041+05:00ASIL Insight: The ICC Appeals Chamber Decision on the Warrant of Arrest in Prosecutor v. Bashir<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#author">By Saira Mohamed</a><br /><br />Introduction<br /><br />On February 3, 2010, the Appeals Chamber of the International Criminal Court (ICC) ruled that the court's Pre-Trial Chamber had erred in refusing to issue an arrest warrant on charges of genocide for Omar Hassan Ahmad al-Bashir, the President of Sudan.<a rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1"></a><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1">[1]</a> The Pre-Trial Chamber had issued a warrant in March 2009 on charges of crimes against humanity and war crimes, but it found that there was insufficient evidence to support the genocide charges that the Prosecutor had alleged.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[2]</a> Although it did not reach a conclusion as to whether a warrant must be issued with respect to the genocide charges, the Appeals Chamber's decision both provides some clarification of the standards required under the Rome Statute for issuance of an arrest warrant and offers an opportunity for reflection on the Appeals Chamber's interpretation of the limits of its powers with respect to the bodies it reviews. This Insight provides background to this important and potentially charged decision and explores its potential impact on the judicial and prosecutorial organs of the Court.<br /><br />Background to the Decision<br /><br />The action against Bashir originated in the July 2008 request of the ICC Prosecutor for an arrest warrant on three counts of genocide, five counts of crimes against humanity, and two counts of war crimes, based on Bashir's alleged role as the "mastermind" behind atrocities committed against the people of Darfur, where hundreds of thousands have been killed and millions have been forced from their homes.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[3]</a> The request for a warrant, which marked the first time a sitting head of state has been pursued by the ICC, was met with defiance by the Government of Sudan. Today, Bashir remains in power; he recently received the official nomination of his political party to make a bid for the presidency in nationwide elections to be held later this year.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[4]</a><br /><br />The Pre-Trial Chamber unanimously granted the Prosecutor's request for a warrant, but with one dissent it issued the warrant only for charges of crimes against humanity and war crimes.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[5]</a> Soon after, the Prosecutor filed an application for leave to appeal the Pre-Trial Chamber's decision.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[6]</a> Under the Rome Statute, appeals are not available for all interim decisions. Instead, Article 82(1) enumerates four categories of decision that may be appealed, including three that are appealable as of right, and a fourtha decision "that involves an issue that would significantly affect the fair and expeditious conduct of the proceedings or the outcome of the trial, and for which, in the opinion of the Pre-Trial or Trial Chamber, an immediate resolution by the Appeals Chamber may materially advance the proceedings"<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[7]</a> that requires permission of the chamber issuing the decision.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[8]</a> The Pre-Trial Chamber granted the request for appeal, filed under this final provision of Article 82(1), in June 2009.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[9]</a><br /><br />The "Reasonable Grounds" Standard<br /><br />The central issue on appeal concerned the proper interpretation of Article 58(1)(a) of the Rome Statute, which holds that the Pre-Trial Chamber "shall, on the application of the Prosecutor, issue a warrant of arrest of a person" if "[t]here are reasonable grounds to believe that the person has committed a crime within the jurisdiction of the Court."<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[10]</a> In its decision to issue the arrest warrant only for charges of war crimes and crimes against humanity, the majority of the Pre-Trial Chamber held that because the existence of genocidal intent was "only one of several reasonable conclusions" that could have been drawn from the evidence, the Prosecution had failed to satisfy the evidentiary burden set forth in the Rome Statute to support the warrant on charges of genocide.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[11]</a> In its appeal, the Prosecution challenged this interpretation of the "reasonable grounds" standard of Article 58(1)(a), arguing that it equated "reasonable grounds" with a "higher level of proof," an argument that was also made by Judge Usacka in dissent from the majority of the Pre-Trial Chamber.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[12]</a> Instead of requiring that genocidal intent be the only reasonable inference available, the Prosecution argued, the Pre-Trial Chamber should have required simply that genocidal intent was one reasonable inference available.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[13]</a><br /><br />The Appeals Chamber agreed. The Pre-Trial Chamber's standard, it held, was "higher and more demanding" than what is required under the Rome Statute.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[14]</a> In rejecting the Pre-Trial Chamber's interpretation of Article 58, it distinguished the evidentiary threshold required for issuance of an arrest warrant"reasonable grounds to believe"both from the stricter standard required for the later stage of confirmation of charges"substantial grounds to believe"<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[15]</a> and from the even more rigorous standard ultimately required for conviction"beyond reasonable doubt."<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[16]</a> According to the Appeals Chamber, the Pre-Trial Chamber's interpretation of "reasonable grounds" would impose on the Prosecutor a requirement of proof "beyond reasonable doubt."<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[17]</a><br /><br />Significance of the Decision<br /><br />From the perspective of those eager to see some progress in the prosecution of Bashir, in the development of international criminal law, or in the work of the Court overall, the Appeals Chamber's decision may appear to have little import. The Appeals Chamber did not add genocide charges to the warrant for Bashir's arrest; it merely remanded to the Pre-Trial Chamber for a new determination under a proper reading of Article 58(1)(a).<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[18]</a> Indeed, the Pre-Trial Chamber could still find in its next round of review that the Prosecutor has not shown reasonable grounds to believe that Bashir is criminally responsible for genocide; or even if it does amend the warrant to add genocide charges, the same result could have been reached if the Prosecutor sought later to amend the charges to include genocide at the confirmation of charges stage, rather than appealing at the warrant stage.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[19]</a> Nor did the Appeals Chamber provide a definition or test for a proper interpretation of "reasonable grounds to believe"; although the Appeals Chamber detailed the flaws in the decision it was reviewing, it left that power of interpretation to the Pre-Trial Chamber. The decision by the Appeals Chamber did not even appear to satisfy the Rome Statute's requirement that permission for appeal should be granted only where "an immediate resolution by the Appeals Chamber may materially advance the proceedings."<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[20]</a> Far from an "immediate" resolution, the Appeals Chamber issued its narrow ruling, finding error and remanding to the Pre-Trial Chamber for a new decision, more than seven months after the Pre-Trial Chamber had granted the Prosecutor leave to appeal in the first place.<br /><br />Despite its apparent emptiness, however, the Appeals Chamber decision concerning the Bashir warrant represents a valuable resource to study the development of international criminal law and the Court. As a preliminary matter, the fact that genocide charges could have been added at the confirmation of charges stage, without months of a drawn-out appeals process, does not vitiate the interest in correcting the Pre-Trial Chamber's incorrect interpretation of the Article 58(1)(a) standard. Had the Prosecutor chosen not to appeal, the Pre-Trial Chamber's unduly rigorous threshold for establishing "reasonable grounds to believe" sufficient to support an arrest warrant surely would have affected future casesinvolving not only genocide, but also charges of other crimes. From this perspective, the Appeals Chamber decision was not a seven-month exercise in futility; it was a necessary and significant step in interpretation and application of the Rome Statute.<br /><br />Beyond its importance for development of international criminal law, the decision also provides some insight into the Appeals Chamber's understanding of its role in reviewing interim decisions. The Prosecution requested that the Appeals Chamber either direct the Pre-Trial Chamber to issue an arrest warrant on the genocide counts, or, in the alternative, to remand the matter to the Pre-Trial Chamber to determine whether it must issue an arrest warrant for genocide.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[21]</a> The Appeals Chamber indeed has either power: In contrast to the rules governing an appeal of a final judgment, which are set forth in detail in Article 83, the Rome Statute provides little guidance on the procedures or impact of an appeal of an interim decision, and the Rules of Procedure, which provide that the Appeals Chamber "may confirm, reverse, or amend the decision appealed," grant great discretion to the Appeals Chamber.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[22]</a><br /><br />By finding error in the decision not to grant the warrant for genocide charges but choosing to remand to the Pre-Trial Chamber for the ultimate determination, the Appeals Chamber showed great restraint in its approach to its position relative to other institutions of the Court. It protected the Pre-Trial Chamber's responsibility for monitoring the investigatory work of the Office of the Prosecutor, leaving to the Pre-Trial Chamber the task of striking a balance between holding the Prosecutor in check through the requirement of adequate evidence to support an arrest warrant and granting the Prosecutor sufficient latitude consistent with the Rome Statute to support charges where appropriate. Like its 2008 decision on the definition of gravity required for admissibility, in which the Appeals Chamber held that the Pre-Trial Chamber had erred in its interpretation of gravity but refused the request of the Prosecutor that the Appeals Chamber identify the correct interpretation on its own,<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[23]</a> the Appeals Chamber has set out for itself a limited role in interlocutory appealsbut a role that bears great power despite its limits. By ensuring that the Pre-Trial Chambernot the Appeals Chamberremains the gatekeeper to the issuance of arrest warrants and confirmations of charges,<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[24]</a> the Appeals Chamber has maintained through the Bashir decision a balance on the relative powers of the Office of the Prosecutor, Pre-Trial Chamber, and Appeals Chamber, and has preserved the vitality and relevance of each body relative to the other.<br /><br />At the same time, the decision could alter the dynamic between the Office of the Prosecutor and the Pre-Trial Chamber, which may interpret the Appeals Chamber's opinion as a call for greater deference by the Pre-Trial Chamber when reviewing charging documents submitted by the Prosecutor. The potential for fewer checks on the Office of the Prosecutor, especially in light of the controversy already surrounding the decision to pursue Bashir,<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_edn1" rel="nofollow">[25]</a> could lead to heightened allegations concerning the absence of checks on the power of the Prosecutor.<br /><br />Conclusion<br /><br />The ICC's pursuit of Bashir will likely run a long course. More than eighteen months after the Prosecutor announced that he was seeking an arrest warrant for the Sudanese president, Bashir remains the leader of the Government of Sudan. Based on the progress made so far, it seems likely that the arrest warrant for Bashir may never be executed; pouring the ICC's resources into determining which charges may form the basis of this warrant suggests that, for better or worse, the work of the Court is divorced from realities on the ground. Although the Appeals Chamber's decision on the warrant may have questionable impact on Bashir himself, this Insight has shown that the decision protects an important standard in the ICC's pre-trial powers, preserves the separation between the different branches of the Court, and suggests an awareness on the part of the Appeals Chamber of its crucial role in maintaining a balance among these institutions' powers and responsibilities.<br /><br /><a rel="nofollow" name="author"></a>About the Author: Saira Mohamed, an ASIL member, is the James Milligan Fellow at Columbia Law School.<br /><br />Endnotes<br /><br /><a rel="nofollow" name="_edn1"></a><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref1">[1]</a> See Prosecutor v. Bashir, No. ICC-02/05-01/09-OA, Judgment on the Appeal of the Prosecutor Against the "Decision of the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant Against Omar Hassan Al Bashir," ¶ 1 (Feb. 3, 2010) [hereinafter Appeals Chamber Warrant Judgment].<br /><a rel="nofollow" name="_edn2"></a><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref2">[2]</a> See Prosecutor v. Bashir, No. ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest Against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, at 92 (Mar. 4, 2009) [hereinafter Pre-Trial Chamber Warrant Decision].<br /><a rel="nofollow" name="_edn3"></a><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref3">[3]</a> International Criminal Court, Office of the Prosecutor, Situation in Darfur, The Sudan, Summary of the Case: Prosecutor's Application for Warrant of Arrest Under Article 58 Against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, at 1, available at <a href="http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/64FA6B33-05C3-4E9C-A672-3FA2B58CB2C9/277758/ICCOTPSummary20081704ENG.pdf" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/rdonlyres/64FA6B33-05C3-4E9C-A672-3FA2B58CB2C9/277758/ICCOTPSummary20081704ENG.pdf</a>.<br /><a rel="nofollow" name="_edn4"></a><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref4">[4]</a> See Beshir Nominated by His Party for Sudan Re-Election, AGENCE FRANCE PRESS, Jan. 12, 2010.<br /><a rel="nofollow" name="_edn5"></a><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5">[5]</a> See Pre-Trial Chamber Warrant Decision, supra note 2, at 92.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[6]</a> See Prosecutor v. Bashir, No. ICC-02/05-01/09, Prosecution's Application for Leave to Appeal the "Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir," at 3 (Mar. 10, 2009).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[7]</a> Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court art. 82(1)(d), July 17, 1998, 2187 U.N.T.S. 90, 137 [hereinafter Rome Statute]. The three categories that are appealable as of right are (1) decisions jurisdiction or admissibility; (2) decisions granting or denying release of the person being investigated or prosecuted; and (3) decisions of the Pre-Trial Chamber made pursuant to Article 56(3) of the Statute. See id. art. 82(1)(a)(c); see also Robert Roth & Marc Henzelin, The Appeal Procedure of the ICC, in 2 THE ROME STATUTE OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT: A COMMENTARY 1535, 154850 (Antonio Cassese et al. eds., 2002).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[8]</a> See WAR CRIMES RESEARCH OFFICE, INTERLOCUTORY APPELLATE REVIEW OF EARLY DECISIONS OF THE INTERNATIONAL CRIMINAL COURT, at 1213 (Jan. 2008), available at <a href="http://www.wcl.american.edu/warcrimes/documents/01-2008InterlocutoryAppeals.pdf" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://www.wcl.american.edu/warcrimes/documents/01-2008InterlocutoryAppeals.pdf</a>.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[9]</a> See Prosecutor v. Bashir, No. ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecutor's Application for Leave to Appeal the "Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir," at 10 (June 24, 2009).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[10]</a> Rome Statute, supra note 7, art. 58(1)(a).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[11]</a> See Pre-Trial Chamber Arrest Warrant Decision, supra note 2, ¶ 159.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[12]</a> See Prosecutor v. Bashir, No. ICC-02/05-01/09, Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest Against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir, Separate and Partly Dissenting Opinion of Judge Anita Uacka, at 57 (Mar. 4, 2009).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[13]</a> See Prosecutor v. Bashir, No. ICC-02/05-01/09 OA, Prosecution Document in Support of Appeal Against the "Decision on the Prosecution's Application for a Warrant of Arrest Against Omar Hassan Ahmad Al Bashir," ¶¶ 3, 3743 (July 6, 2009) [hereinafter Prosecution's Appeal of Warrant Decision].<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[14]</a> Appeals Chamber Warrant Judgment, supra note 1, ¶ 39.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[15]</a> Rome Statute, supra note 7, art. 61(7).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[16]</a> Id. art. 66(3).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[17]</a> See Appeals Chamber Warrant Judgment, supra note 1, ¶ 33 (Feb. 3, 2010) ("Requiring that the existence of genocidal intent must be the only reasonable conclusion amounts to requiring the Prosecutor to disprove any other reasonable conclusions and to eliminate any reasonable doubt. If the only reasonable conclusion based on the evidence is the existence of genocidal intent, then it cannot be said that such a finding establishes merely reasonable grounds to believe.' Rather, it establishes genocidal intent beyond reasonable doubt."').<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[18]</a> See id. ¶ 42.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[19]</a> See Rome Statute, supra note 7, art. 61(7)(c)(ii) (providing that the Pre-Trial Chamber may request the Prosecutor to consider amending charges "because the evidence submitted appears to establish a different crime within the jurisdiction of the Court"); see also id. art. 61(9) ("After the charges are confirmed and before the trial has begun, the Prosecutor may, with the permission of the Pre-Trial Chamber and after notice to the accused, amend the charges."). Notably, in December 2009 the Appeals Chamber reversed a decision of Trial Chamber I that had allowed for a legal "recharacterization" of the facts in Lubanga. The Appeals Chamber held that the Trial Chamber could not change the legal characterization of the facts to support charges that were not originally confirmed by the Pre-Trial Chamber because the "facts and circumstances" in the confirmation of charges did not support the new charges, a violation of Article 74(2) of the Rome Statute. See Prosecutor v. Lubanga, No. ICC-01/04-01/06, Judgment on the Appeals of Mr. Lubanga Dyilo and the Prosecutor against the Decision of Trial Chamber I of 14 July 2009 Entitled "Decision Giving Notice to the Parties and Participants that the Legal Characterisation of the Facts May Be Subject to Change in Accordance with Regulation 55(2) of the Regulations of the Court," ¶ 112 (Dec. 8, 2009).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[20]</a> Rome Statute, supra note 7, art. 82(1)(d).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[21]</a> See Prosecution's Appeal of Warrant Decision, supra note 13, ¶ 65.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[22]</a> INT'L CRIM. CT. R. P. & EVID. 158(1).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[23]</a> See Situation in the Democratic Republic of Congo, Judgment on the Prosecutor's Appeal Against the Decision of Pre-Trial Chamber I Entitled "Decision on the Prosecutor's Application for Warrants of Arrest, Article 58," ¶¶ 8889; see also Beth Van Schaack, Atrocity Crimes Litigation: 2008 Year-In-Review, 7 NW. J. INT'L HUM. RTS. 170, 17683 (2009).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[24]</a> See David Scheffer, A Review of the Experiences of the Pre-Trial and Appeals Chambers of the International Criminal Court Regarding the Disclosure of Evidence, 21 LEIDEN J. INT'L L. 151, 153 (2008).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=1&.tm=1266466328&.rand=5no1fn66lr0bi#_ednref5" rel="nofollow">[25]</a> See Colum Lynch, Africans Defend Sudan's Indicted Leader as International Court Under Fire, WASH. POST, June 30, 2009, 2009 WLNR 12462101 (describing questions surrounding motivations and prosecutorial strategy of the ICC Prosecutor).Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-2596826780266721692009-12-30T14:06:00.002+05:002009-12-30T14:09:57.280+05:00Call for papers: The Israel Law Review<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: arial; font-size: 13px; line-height: 15px; "><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:'Palatino Linotype';"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 17px; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">Dear Colleagues,</span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:'Palatino Linotype';"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 17px; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:'Palatino Linotype';"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 17px; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">please find quoted below a message from the Chief Co-Editors of </span><i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">The Israel Law Review</span></i><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">:</span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; 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"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">Dear Colleagues,</span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:'Palatino Linotype';"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 17px; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family:Palatino Linotype;"><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">With the advent of a new year, we write to inform you of important changes in the Israel Law Review and to invite you to submit a written contribution to the journal, which is now published by the Minerva Center for Human Rights at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem.</span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:'Palatino Linotype';"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 17px; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family:Palatino Linotype;"><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">The Israel Law Review is the oldest and most prestigious law journal appearing in English in Israel, published for more than 40 years under the academic auspices of the Faculty of Law at the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. The Faculty of Law recently decided to transform the Israel Law Review from a general law review to a publication focused on public law and human rights in times of tension, conflict and transformation, and to place it under the academic and organizational leadership of the Minerva Center for Human Rights. This new move gives formal expression to already-existing trends in the profile of the materials published by the Israel Law Review. More broadly, this new focus acknowledges a growing interest in the ability of public law and human rights norms and institutions to meet the challenges faced by societies under pressure, and is indicative of the increased relevance of comparative and international scholarship to existing debates in and on such societies.</span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:'Palatino Linotype';"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 17px; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family:Palatino Linotype;"><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">The Israel Law Review will continue to publish three issues per year. These issues will continue to be distributed in paper and electronic form (in Lexis and Hein on Line). The issues will contain, as before, long articles, shorter notes and book reviews submitted to the journal by a variety of authors from around the world. All submissions are subject to a "double-blind review" process by two or more referees, and undergo technical and style editing by the Israel Law Review student editors (supervised and assisted by an academic editor, Dr. Yaël Ronen</span><b style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-weight: bold; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">;</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"> a technical editor, Ms. Michele Manspeizer</span><b style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-weight: bold; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">;</span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"> and an executive editor, Adv. Danny Evron). The general policy of the Law Review, as well as overall responsibility for its contents and format, will lie with the two editors-in-chief: Prof. Yuval Shany (Hebrew University of Jerusalem) and Prof. Sir Nigel Rodley ( University of Essex ).</span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:'Palatino Linotype';"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 17px; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family:Palatino Linotype;"><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">In its new format, the Israel Law Review is assisted in its work by an international board of editors composed of prominent public law and human rights experts – Prof. Aharon Barak (former President of the Israeli Supreme Court), Prof. Daphna Barak-Erez (Tel-Aviv University), Prof. Antonio Cassese (Florence University), Prof. Malcolm Feeley (University of California, Berkeley), Prof. Jochen Frowein (Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law, Heidelberg), Prof. Francoise Hampson (University of Essex), Prof. Vicki Jackson (Georgetown University), Dr. Michael Karayanni (Hebrew University of Jerusalem), Prof. Eckart Klein (Potsdam University), Prof. Mordechai Kremnitzer (Hebrew University of Jerusalem), Prof. David Kretzmer (Hebrew University of Jerusalem), Prof. Fionnuala Ní-Aoláin (University of Minnesota, University of Ulster), Prof. Frances Raday (College of Management Academic Studies, Rishon Le Zion), Prof. William Schabas (National University, Ireland), Prof. Malcolm Shaw (Leicester University) and Prof. Henry Steiner (Harvard University).</span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:'Palatino Linotype';"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 17px; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family:Palatino Linotype;"><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">We, at the Minerva Center , strongly encourage you – academics interested in public law and human rights issue relating to societies facing tension, conflict and transition - to consider submitting your future work for publication in the Israel Law Review. We are committed to a prompt and professional review and printing process, and believe that we can offer you an attractive and prestigious publication platform.</span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:'Palatino Linotype';"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 17px; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family:Palatino Linotype;"><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">More information on the submission and publication process can be found on the Israel Law Review website -</span><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; color:black;"><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; color: black; "><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://law.huji.ac.il/eng/pirsumim.asp?cat=735" title="blocked::http://law.huji.ac.il/eng/pirsumim.asp?cat=735" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: blue; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">http://law.huji.ac.il/eng/pirsumim.asp?cat=735</span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"> </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">. We and the rest of the law review staff will gladly answer any question you may have concerning the journal and publishing in it (please refer any such queries to: </span><u style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; color:black;"><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; color: black; "><a rel="nofollow" ymailto="mailto:ilr@savion.huji.ac.il" target="_blank" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/compose?to=ilr@savion.huji.ac.il" title="blocked::mailto:ilr@savion.huji.ac.il" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: blue; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; color:black;"><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; color: windowtext; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">ilr@savion.huji.ac.il</span></span></span></a></span></span></u><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">).</span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:'Palatino Linotype';"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 17px; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family:Palatino Linotype;"><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">We wish you a happy 2010!</span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:'Palatino Linotype';"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="line-height: 17px; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family:Palatino Linotype;"><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-family: 'Palatino Linotype'; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">Prof. Yuval Shany and</span><b style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-weight: bold; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"> </span></span></b><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">Prof. Sir Nigel Rodley – Chief Co-Editors</span></span></span></p></span>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-30703409128044677822009-11-14T10:21:00.000+05:002009-11-14T10:22:44.420+05:00African Union Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa (23 October 2009)<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial; border-collapse: collapse; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">ASIL, 14 November 2009</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102826350498&s=30063&e=001IZBlQUw4Hq_QqG4WlCYgjqYQvk9nrTD7Wfh0YTXtLqegstQxO6Sm0QyiFmr_hVJ9jI1ZbOhgRGX7R1d8j0VVDatZ_4fXK-7Rhi2vUdHsMx0RzxKIs_FIsosUZFw7HGV9wjTJFJ8LrjZadRKQnMVMXk4WU-D0iwWe4p9SRm2fOO5uQ_czfwqG6nHVsWMLw9_pV07YC_BPf665IqjZIcln0thKgXejctsG" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Click here</a> for document (approximately 27 pages)</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">On October 23, 2009, the African Union (AU) approved the Convention for the Protection and Assistance of Internally Displaced Persons in Africa. The Convention will come into force within 30 days of ratification by fifteen of the fifty-three AU member states. The Convention aims to “[p]romote and strengthen regional and national measures to prevent or mitigate, prohibit and eliminate root causes of internal displacement as well as provide for durable solutions” and to “[e]stablish a legal framework for preventing internal displacement, and protecting and assisting internally displaced persons in Africa.” <br /><br />The adoption of the Convention is a major regional human rights development which had as its basis the <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102826350498&s=30063&e=001IZBlQUw4Hq9oVBe1vT-ZowY_nHDuy86qFxMVhALaPbWDTVXtLg6H_63ZM9kiKqeHkPo-qeuE9xMyA17MoS9Z7Xc33PhkoKkmRMiyfKzVN3HHXqf4CmGO4O6UB319oWe889UP0qEJvlaYsU4hLYhX0FgHxaGnyege_wRzTwnmWKICHAbJUAdy2A==" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Guiding Principles on Internal Displacement</a> (Guiding Principles) initially promulgated in 1998. The Guiding Principles, founded on international humanitarian and human rights law, are guidelines used by international organizations and governments to effectively help and protect IDPs. According to the Guiding Principles, IDPs are</p><blockquote style="margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 40px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 40px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">persons or groups of persons who have been forced or obliged to flee or to leave their homes or places of habitual residence, in particular as a result of or in order to avoid the effects of armed conflict, situations of generalized violence, violations of human rights or natural or human-made disasters, and who have not crossed an internationally recognized State border.</blockquote><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">The reliance on the Guiding Principles is clear from the text of the Convention. Like the Guiding Principles, the Convention obligates all member states to protect IDPs in any type of armed internal conflict or natural disasters, including “[d]isplacement caused by any act, event, factor, or phenomenon of comparable gravity to all of the above and which is not justified under international law, including human rights and international humanitarian law” (<em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">cf.</em>Convention, Article 4(4)(h) and Guiding Principles, Scope and Purpose, para. 2). <br /><br />While the Convention is a big step toward codifying the Guiding Principles, some have criticized its weak accountability mechanism. This is especially troubling given that more than eleven million internally displaced persons are in Africa.</p></span>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-83642055328566613882009-11-05T11:59:00.000+05:002009-11-05T12:01:32.813+05:00МИД Польши просит США выслать войска для защиты от РоссииМинистр иностранных дел Польши Радослав Сикорский призывает США разместить подразделения американских вооруженных сил на территории республики.<br /><br />«Нашим желанием было бы получить американские войска, размещенные в нашей стране, как щит против русской агрессии», - сказал Сикорский, выступая в Центре стратегических и международных исследований в Вашингтоне. При этом он добавил, что «пока в Польше только шесть американских солдат».<br /><br />«Мы пограничная страна НАТО и знаем, что это значит», - заявил глава польского МИДа.<br />Сикорский отметил, что особую обеспокоенность у Варшавы вызвали крупномасштабные учения, проведенные в сентябре Россией и Белоруссией, которые, по его словам, включали имитацию использования ядерного оружия и инсценировку высадки на польское побережье.<br /><br />«Нам не понятно, что стоит за этими учениями, какое известие Россия хочет послать миру, проводя самые крупные учения на границах НАТО с момента распада Советского Союза», - заявил Сикорский.<br /><br />«Когда 10 лет назад Польша вступила в НАТО, России было сделано обещание, что значительные силы НАТО не будут направляться в регион», - сказал он.<br /><br />«Однако никто в то время не говорил, что никогда и никакие силы не будут размещены, и это дело, которое следует сделать», - заявил глава МИД Польши.<br /><br />Сикорский также сообщил, что в Польше прошел «первоначальный дискомфорт», вызванный отказом Вашингтона от размещения на территории республики элементов ПРО.<br />«Это - дело прошлое», - сказал он. «В отношении нового плана у нас нет проблем», - проинформировал Сикорский, передает <a href="http://www.interfax.ru/" target="_blank">«Интерфакс»</a>.Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-11488741666089070332009-11-02T09:34:00.000+05:002009-11-02T09:35:50.266+05:00Комитет СФ по обороне поддержал закон об использовании ВС за рубежомПрофильный комитет Совета Федерации по обороне и безопасности поддержал в четверг <a href="http://redirect.subscribe.ru/state.army.vpn,75668/20091029212322/15302=15369=15331=t=12975/m14919146/-/rian.ru/defense_safety/20090810/180362721.html" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">внесенный президентом РФ законопроект об использовании вооруженных сил (ВС) РФ</a> за пределами страны и рекомендовал верхней палате одобрить его на пленарном заседании 30 октября. Председатель комитета Виктор Озеров напомнил, что, в соответствии с документом, формирования ВС могут оперативно использоваться за пределами России для отражения вооруженного нападения на воинские формирования РФ, дислоцированные за рубежом, для отражения или предотвращения вооруженного нападения на другое государство, обратившееся к России с соответствующей просьбой, а также для защиты граждан РФ, находящихся за рубежом, от вооруженного нападения на них. "Также, в соответствии с внесенным законопроектом, формирования ВС РФ могут быть использованы в целях борьбы с пиратством", - сказал он РИА Новости.<br /><br />При этом Озеров обратил внимание на то, что решение об оперативном использовании ВС принимает президент РФ на основании соответствующего постановления Совета Федерации. Именно глава государства определяет общую численность воинских формирований и срок их использования, сказал сенатор. "Мы поддерживаем этот закон, поскольку он создает полноценную правовую базу для оперативного использования российских вооруженных сил за пределами страны и способствует тем самым укреплению безопасности российского государства и российских граждан", - заявил председатель комитета. По словам Озерова, возможность использования вооруженных сил для защиты своих граждан прописана в законодательстве многих стран.<br /><br />Права на данный материал принадлежат <a href="http://redirect.subscribe.ru/state.army.vpn,75668/20091029212322/15302=15369=15331=t=12975/m14919146/-/www.rian.ru/" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">РИАНовости</a> (29.10.2009).Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-21254890987507634872009-10-24T20:19:00.001+05:002009-10-24T20:21:29.326+05:00Госдума рассмотрит закон о применении Вооруженных сил РФ за рубежом<span class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse: collapse; line-height: 22px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;">Госдума в пятницу рассмотрит в третьем, окончательном чтении внесенный президентом РФ законопроект "Об обороне", касающийся оперативного использования Вооруженных сил РФ за пределами территории страны. Документ предусматривает, что формирования Вооруженных сил (ВС) России могут оперативно использоваться за пределами территории страны для отражения вооруженного нападения на формирование ВС РФ, другие войска или органы, дислоцированные за пределами России, отражения или предотвращения вооруженного нападения на другое государство, обратившееся к России с соответствующей просьбой, защиты граждан РФ, находящихся за рубежом, от вооруженного нападения на них. Формирования ВС также могут быть использованы в целях борьбы с пиратством и обеспечения безопасности судоходства. Решение об оперативном использовании Вооруженных сил принимается президентом РФ на основании соответствующего постановления Совета Федерации. Общую численность воинских формирований, район их действия, стоящие перед ними задачи и срок использования определяет глава государства. Комплектование и обеспечение указанных формирований осуществляет Минобороны РФ. Действующий закон предусматривает использование формирований ВС РФ за пределами территории страны только для решения задач по пресечению международной террористической деятельности, выполнения задач в соответствии с международными договорами РФ. Другие основания для использования российских воинских формирований за рубежом законом не предусмотрены. Но сложившаяся ситуация затрудняет оперативность подготовки и принятия соответствующих решений верховным главнокомандующим Вооруженными силами (в России им является президент) в определенных экстремальных ситуациях, например, в таких, как грузинская агрессия против Южной Осетии в августе 2008 года, что угрожает национальным интересам России, правам и законным интересам ее граждан, говорится в заключении комитета Госдумы по обороне.</span></span></span><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse: collapse; line-height: 22px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse: collapse; line-height: 22px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; color:maroon;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;">Права на данный материал принадлежат </span></span><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://redirect.subscribe.ru/state.army.vpn,75668/20091023201314/14994=15022=t=12975/m14919146/-/www.rian.ru/" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(0, 51, 153); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; text-decoration: none; color:maroon;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;">РИАНовости</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"> </span></span><span style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline- color:initial;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;"> </span></span></span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:arial;">(23.10.2009).</span></span></span></span></div>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-20309200244463032662009-10-21T11:40:00.002+05:002009-10-21T11:47:38.503+05:00Who can be detained in the "War on Terror"? The Emerging Answer<p>ASIL Insight<br />October 20, 2009<br />Volume 13, Issue 18<br /><a href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102776276387&s=30063&e=001kvqHXN7QUJqhIBoAVOOWx24-ASMIVpSUQazb6z1AfKW3mo99H9hGr8cBtXxdFXr8czwBJxKk212YBphGDl7r3xx452qYaKovl7f3UfX2vYl8Msr95xh61zIk8yLKymTEFpjZkdJR6YooBMJHUvP9WA==" target="_blank" shape="rect" rel="nofollow"></a> <br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#author" shape="rect" rel="nofollow">By Faiza Patel</a><br /><br />Introduction </p><p>Soon after the United States launched its “war on terror” by attacking the Taliban regime of Afghanistan, U.S. courts were asked to consider who could be detained as part of this conflict. The Supreme Court partially resolved the question in 2004 in Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, holding that the government could detain individuals, including US citizens, who were part of or supporting Taliban forces and engaged in armed conflict against the US.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[1]</a> It sidestepped the broader question of the outer bounds of the category of people who could be detained as an “enemy combatant,” leaving it to the lower courts to define. Four years later, the Court's decision in Boumediene v. Bush<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[2]</a> cleared the way for detainees held at the U.S. Naval Facility in Guantánamo Bay, Cuba, to challenge their detention in U.S. courts – and for federal district court judges in the District of Columbia to grapple with the questions left open by Hamdi.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[3]</a><br />As the Guantánamo cases were winding their way to decision, a new President took office and the government refined its position on who could be detained. The Bush administration had claimed the non-reviewable authority to detain any person it deemed an “enemy combatant” based on the inherent authority of the President as Commander in Chief and, alternatively, on Congress's Authorization for Use of Military Force (AUMF).<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[4]</a> The Obama administration dropped the label “enemy combatant.” Based on the AUMF, it claimed authority to detain those suspected of involvement in the 9/11 attacks and, more broadly: </p><p>those who were part of Taliban or al-Qaeda forces, or associated forces that were engaged in hostilities against the United States or its coalition partners; and</p><p>those who substantially supported Taliban or al-Qaeda forces, or associated forces that were engaged in hostilities against the United States or its coalition partners.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[5]</a> </p><p>In the government's view, this would cover persons who committed a belligerent act, or directly supported hostilities, in aid of enemy armed forces. </p><p>This Insight explores the main issues involved in determining the scope of the category of persons who may be detained in the “war on terror,” looking at both recently issued ICRC guidance and key cases in U.S. federal courts. </p><p><strong>Recognition of Organized Armed Groups </strong></p><p>In May 2009, the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) issued a report defining direct participation in hostilities (ICRC Guidance),<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[6]</a> in which it recognized for the first time that organized armed groups belonging to a party to the conflict are – like the members of a State's army – legitimate targets of military action.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[7]</a> Civilians, on the other hand, remain protected except when they directly participate in hostilities.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[8]</a> The ICRC cited to Common Article 3 of the Geneva Conventions to support this position. Common Article 3 provides that “[p]ersons taking no active part in hostilities, including members of armed forces who have laid down their arms and those placed hors de combat by sickness, wounds, detention, or any other cause” must be treated humanely.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[9]</a> The ICRC reasoned that the reference to “members of armed forces” suggested that Common Article 3 assumed that non-State parties to a conflict would have armed forces that were distinct from the civilian population. The ICRC found further support for this principle in Additional Protocol II to the Geneva Conventions, which recognizes the existence of “armed forces,” “dissident armed forces” and “other organized armed groups” fighting on behalf of non-State actors.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[10]</a> </p><p>The ICRC Guidance emphasizes that its purpose is only to explain who should be considered a protected civilian for purposes of targeting during hostilities. However, as is evident from the discussion below, the distinction between civilians and combatants for targeting purposes is the starting point from which U.S. courts have analyzed whether the law of war allows detention in the “war on terror.” In undertaking this analysis, U.S. courts have relied extensively on the ICRC's interpretations of the Geneva Conventions.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[11]</a> The ICRC Guidance thus provides a useful yardstick for analyzing the results reached in the Guantánamo cases. </p><p>Even though they did not take account of the ICRC Guidance, all Guantánamo cases decided thus far have found that members of organized armed groups in non-international armed conflicts are subject to detention under the laws of war. Judge Walton analyzed the issue at length in his influential opinion in Gherebi v. Obama.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[12]</a> He noted that the Supreme Court ruled in Hamdi that the authorization of the use of force against enemy nations encompassed the right to detain enemy fighters as a fundamental incident of waging war. Given that the AUMF authorized the same use of force against enemy organizations, Judge Walton concluded that “it stands to reason that Congress intended to confer upon the President the same authority to detain individuals fighting on behalf of enemy organizations that it conferred on him with respect to enemy nations.”<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[13]</a> He therefore held that under the AUMF the government could detain individuals fighting on behalf of enemy organizations (i.e., members of organized armed groups), as well as those fighting on behalf of enemy nations. </p><p>In considering whether this holding comported with the laws of war, Judge Walton rejected the argument that these laws supported detention as an incident of war in international armed conflicts (such as that at issue in Hamdi), but not in non-international armed conflicts (such as that at issue in Gherebi).<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[14]</a> Judge Walton concluded that the Geneva Conventions did not authorize detention in either type of conflict. Rather, they pre-supposed that such detention would occur and regulated its conditions.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[15]</a> </p><p>Turning to the scope of the government's detention authority, Judge Walton rejected the argument that the Geneva Conventions recognized only two categories of people in non-international armed conflict: members of the State's armed forces and civilians (with the latter permissibly subject to attack only when directly participating in hostilities). Like the ICRC, Judge Walton relied upon Common Article 3 and Additional Protocol II to recognize a third category: the “armed forces” of non-State actors who are actively participating in hostilities. He further held that, because Common Article 3 required a State to treat humanely “members of armed forces...placed hors de combat by...detention,” it implied that the State could detain such persons.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[16]</a> </p><p>A month later, in Hamlily v. Obama, Judge Bates canvassed the laws of war and reached a similar conclusion.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[17]</a> These two cases have been enormously influential and have been followed by several judges in reviewing later cases.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[18]</a> </p><p><strong>Chain of Command v. Combat Function<br /></strong></p><p>Several Guantánamo cases have held that a person who takes orders from an al-Qaeda or Taliban command is a member of one of those groups and can be detained. In Gherebi, the court held that the key question was “whether an individual ‘receive[s] and execute[s] orders' from the enemy force's combat apparatus, not whether he is an al-Qaeda fighter.”<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[19]</a> It further held that an al-Qaeda member whose job was to house, feed or transport fighters could be detained as part of the enemy armed forces regardless of his involvement in actual fighting. On the other hand, an al-Qaeda doctor or cleric, or the father of an al-Qaeda fighter who sheltered his son out of familial loyalty, could not be detained.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[20]</a> The Guantánamo cases that have not followed this approach have also accepted that a person's support of al-Qaeda or the Taliban would be a sufficient basis for detention (see discussion below).<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[21]</a> They have therefore not examined the criteria for membership in an armed group, but have instead looked broadly at the individual's behavior vis-à-vis the relevant armed group.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[22]</a> </p><p>Both approaches clash with the ICRC's position that organized armed groups “consist[] only of individuals whose continuous function it is to take a direct part in hostilities.”<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[23]</a> Under the ICRC's view, persons who perform political and administrative functions, individuals who accompany or support armed groups, but whose function is not direct participation in hostilities (e.g., recruiters, trainers, financiers, propagandists), weapons support specialists and those who collect intelligence would not be considered as members of an armed group. Many of these people would, however, fall within US courts' definition of members of an armed group. </p><p><strong>Substantial Support<br /></strong></p><p>Perhaps the most controversial element of the detention authority claimed by the U.S. is the right to detain those who “substantially supported” enemy forces. While some Guantánamo cases have unquestioningly accepted this standard, several have indicated deep discomfort with importing what is essentially a domestic criminal law standard into the law of war. i explicitly rejected detention on the basis of substantial support.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[24]</a> Gherebi defined the problem away. It accepted the “substantial support” standard, but interpreted it as equivalent with being “part of” the “armed forces” of an enemy organization.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[25]</a> Two additional judges have adopted the Hamlily approach and rejected “substantial support” as a basis for detention.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[26]</a> </p><p>Although the ICRC did not address the issue of “substantial support,” the concept appears to be at odds with its limited definition of “armed groups.” Also, the ICRC has emphasized that only the armed forces of a non-State party – and not the political and administrative apparatus of the non-State party – are subject to military action.<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[27]</a> This distinction would be undermined if “substantial support” of al-Qaeda or the Taliban was considered as sufficient to allow detention under the AUMF. </p><p><strong>Conclusion<br /></strong></p><p>The Guantánamo cases present an interesting microcosm for studying the development of the laws of war, as applied in the context of the “war on terror.” The recognition of “organized armed groups” as permissible objects of hostilities in non-international armed conflicts by both the ICRC and U.S. courts is an important step forward in the clarification of the law. On the other hand, as demonstrated above, there are some fundamental inconsistencies in approach amongst the decisions rendered thus far. There are also questions as to whether these decisions are consistent with applicable international law. </p><p>The extension to non-international armed conflicts of the detention power recognized in Hamdi for inter-State conflicts is an area in which there could be a divergence between the two regimes. Although the Gherebi and Hamlily courts provided convincing arguments for the proposition that the Geneva Conventions did not authorize detention in any type of conflict but that detention was simply a normal incident of inter-State conflict, they did not fully address whether detention in a non-international armed conflict was authorized as an incident of war rather than under domestic law (for example, by examining state practice). Such analysis would seem to be required by the Supreme Court's decision in Hamdi, which interpreted the authorization to use force to encompass detention authority based on “longstanding law-of-war principles.”<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[28]</a> The Hamdi Court explicitly cautioned that “[i]f the practical circumstances of a given conflict are entirely unlike those that informed the development of the law of war that understanding may unravel.”<a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_edn1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_ednref1">[29]</a> The non-international aspects of the “war on terror” undoubtedly present practical circumstances that are very different from the context in which the laws of war evolved. In particular, the geographical and temporal boundaries of the conflict are so much more malleable than those of all previous wars that there is ample room for appellate courts to come to a different view than that taken thus far in the Guantánamo cases. </p><p>The differences between the ICRC and U.S. courts on how to determine who is “part of” an armed group are also striking. The ICRC model is narrower than even the narrowest model adopted by the U.S. courts. This discrepancy may be explained by the timing of the issuance of the ICRC Guidance. More importantly, the ICRC's “continuous combat function” model was developed for purposes of distinguishing who is a combatant in the conduct of hostilities, and perhaps membership in an organized armed group would be construed more widely in the context of detention. At the same time, U.S. courts have consistently relied on Geneva Convention principles of distinction – which apply to targeting – for understanding who can be detained in the “war on terror,” and have been respectful of the ICRC's views on this question. This suggests that, at the very least, the ICRC Guidance should inform the analysis of detention authority in future decisions. </p><p>Although progress in this complex area has been slow, the decisions already rendered in the Guantánamo cases reveal the outlines of the categories of people who, at least according to domestic US law, can be detained in the “war on terror.” As these cases make their way through the appellate process, these outlines will no doubt become clearer. </p><p><strong>About the Author</strong></p><p>Faiza Patel, an ASIL member, is an attorney in the Liberty and National Security Project at the Brennan Center for Justice at N.Y.U. School of Law. </p><p><strong>Endnotes </strong></p><p><br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref1" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn1">[1]</a> Hamdi v. Rumsfeld, 542 U.S. 507, 518 (2004).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref2" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn2">[2]</a> Boumediene v. Bush, _US_, 128 S. Ct. 2229, 2262, 171 L. Ed. 2d 41 (2008).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref3" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn3">[3]</a> The Guantánamo habeas cases have all been brought before the federal district courts of the District of Columbia.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref4" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn4">[4]</a> Authorization for Use of Military Force, Pub. L. No. 107-40, SS 1-2, 115 Stat. 224 (2001).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref5" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn5">[5]</a> See Gherebi v. Obama, 609 F. Supp. 2d 43, 53 (D.D.C. 2009). In addition to dropping the label “enemy combatant,” the principal change made by the Obama Administration was to add the qualifier “substantially.”<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref6" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn6">[6]</a> International Committee for the Red Cross, Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities, available at <a href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102776276387&s=30063&e=001kvqHXN7QUJrF6PxOMKu0oZ7A1tfP1seozt08pIPBZztJ7WcT_tdjFk09oTkoAjcf81rZB0MqEomMDIy86jvTfmvYwiGQy9RZ9mRo0OP9KOXCk4G-7QVoDPRPXjw6URThoSl7ANBPm0rL9rKW-L4QHoQSxwAh-kmfi_YkTJV9gLcZaWjOmnEHWsxCC9G95WL_uzNrnDTSbR0ptLF8yeE6ZTkKQ_Q04SBi2b_vEWt5dcsQGSUBSR8ormrzTjwIORf1M42k8nnhbYvVwFAtM-8Y7Q==" target="_blank" shape="rect" rel="nofollow">http://www.icrc.org/Web/eng/siteeng0.nsf/htmlall/direct-participation-report_res/$File/direct-participation-guidance-2009-icrc.pdf</a> (last visited Sept. 14, 2009) [hereinafter ICRC Guidance].<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref7" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn7">[7]</a> Id. at 27. The “organized armed groups” recognized by the ICRC are exclusively “the armed or military wing of a non-State party: its armed forces in a functional sense.” Id. at 32. Other types of affiliation or support for a non-State party to a conflict would not lead to membership of an organized armed group.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[8]</a> Id.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[9]</a> Geneva Convention Relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War art. 3, Aug. 12, 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3316, 75 U.N.T.S. 135 (emphasis added); Geneva Convention Relative to the Protection of Civilian Persons in Time of War art. 3, Aug. 12, 1949, 6 U.S.T. 3516, 75 U.N.T.S. 286 (same).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[10]</a> Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 and Relating to the Protection of Victims of Non-International Armed Conflicts art. 1, June 8, 1977, 1125 U.N.T.S. 609.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[11]</a> Gherebi, 609 F. Supp. 2d at 63-67; Hamlily v. Obama, 616 F. Supp. 2d 63, 73-74 (D.D.C. 2009). In Hamlily, the District Court specifically noted, as part of its consideration of the detention issue that the ICRC had stated that the definition of “direct participation in hostilities” was unsettled. Id. at 74, n.14. See also Hamdan v. Rumsfeld, 548 U.S. 557, 619, n.48 (noting that the ICRC is “referred to by name in several provisions of the 1949 Geneva Conventions” and that, “[t]hough not binding law,” its commentary on the Geneva Conventions is, “as the parties recognize, relevant in interpreting the Conventions' provisions”).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[12]</a> Gherebi, 609 F. Supp. 2d at 55.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[13]</a> Id.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[14]</a> It had been argued by petitioner Khan that the conflict between the United States and the Taliban government, which was at issue in Hamdi was international, while the conflict between the United States and organizations like Al Qaeda was non-international. Id. at 56. The court did not take a position on the character of the conflict. Id. at 55, n.7, but rather rejected the idea that the difference in the character of the conflict was relevant for purposes of deciding who could be detained under the Geneva Conventions. Id. at 60-61.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[15]</a> Id. at 61.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[16]</a> Id. at 65.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[17]</a> Hamlily, 616 F. Supp. 2d at 74 .<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[18]</a> See Mattan v. Obama, 618 F. Supp. 2d 24, 26 (D.D.C. 2009); Al Mutairi v. United States, No. 02-828, 2009 U.S.Dist. LEXIS 66868, at *17 (D.D.C. July 29, 2009); Al Odah v. United States, No. 02-828, 2009 U.S.Dist. LEXIS 78222, at *14 (D.D.C. Aug. 24, 2009); Al Rabiah v. United States, No. 02-828, 2009 U.S.Dist. LEXIS 88936, at *18-19 (D.D.C. Sep. 17, 2009). Judge Leon of the D.C. District Court has followed a different approach. He decided the first of the Guantánamo cases before the government revised its proposed standard. At that time, he accepted the standard applied in the Combatant Status Review Tribunals under the Military Commissions Act of 2004. Under this view, an enemy combatant subject to detention was “an individual who was part of or supporting Taliban or al Qaeda forces, or associated forces that are engaged in hostilities against the United States or its coalition partners.” Boumedienne v. Bush, 583 F. Supp. 2d 133, 135 (D.D.C. 2008). He has continued to follow this approach, which is not dissimilar from the one proposed by the US government. Gharani v. Bush, 593 F. Supp. 2d 144, 147 (D.D.C. 2009); Al Bihani v. Bush, 594 F. Supp. 2d 35, 38 (D.D.C. 2009); Hammamy v. Obama, 604 F. Supp. 2d 240, 243 (D.D.C. 2009). One judge of the D.C. District Court, Judge Kessler, has accepted, without discussion, the government's proposed standard. Ahmed v. Obama, 613 F. Supp. 2d 51, 54 (D.D.C. 2009).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[19]</a> Gherebi, 609 F. Supp. 2d at 69; accord Hamlily, 616 F. Supp. 2d at 75; Al Mattan, 618 F. Supp. 2d at 26 (adopting Hamlily); Al Odah, 2009 U.S.Dist. LEXIS 78222, at *14. See also Al Bihani, 594 F. Supp. 2d 35 (upholding detention of a cook in the 55th Arab Brigade because he followed orders of al-Qaeda commander).<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[20]</a> See Hamlily, 616 F.Supp.2d at 75; Al Mattan, 618 F. Supp. 2d at 26 (adopting Hamlily); Al Odah, 2009 U.S.Dist. LEXIS 78222, at *14. See also Al Bihani, 594 F. Supp. 2d 35.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[21]</a> Al Mattan, 618 F. Supp. 2d at 26 (adopting Hamlily); Al Odah, 2009 U.S.Dist. LEXIS 78222 at *14. See also Al Bihani, 594 F. Supp. 2d 35.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[22]</a> See Gharani, 593 F. Supp. 2d at 147-149; Hammamy, 604 F. Supp. 2d at 243-244; Ahmed, 613 F. Supp. 2d at 59-66.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[23]</a> ICRC Guidance, supra note 6, at 33.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[24]</a> Hamlily, 616 F. Supp. 2d at 76. Since Hamlily rejected the substantial support standard, it also rejected the government's view that persons who directly supported hostilities in aid of enemy armed forces were subject to detention under the laws of war.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[25]</a> Gherebi, 609 F. Supp. 2d at 70.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[26]</a> Mattan, 618 F. Supp. 2d at 26; Al Mutairi, 2009 U.S.Dist. LEXIS 66868, at *17-18; Al Odah, 2009 U.S.Dist. LEXIS 78222, at *16; Al Rabiah, 2009 U.S.Dist. LEXIS 88936, at *18-19. On the other hand, as discussed previously, see, supra note 17, Judge Leon has adopted the Combatant Status Review Tribunal, which includes the concept of support.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[27]</a> ICRC Guidance, supra note 6, at 32.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[28]</a> Hamdi, 542 U.S. at 594.<br /><a href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1256097728&.rand=4tvakdifla0ns#_ednref8" shape="rect" rel="nofollow" name="_edn8">[29]</a> Id. </p>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-16704268743166667192009-10-17T08:50:00.000+05:002009-10-17T08:51:18.076+05:00Independent Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia (September 2009)<div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial; border-collapse: collapse; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; "><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102770141007&s=30063&e=001zO_-PM0nn6ChCPZzZ7hPYfi_1PZ9fCdr4tRaekaP9Opda6z0CLb1XcOEa5LK1rp6kDg_AaqKMRYwLUm0_4tZiTMnceH5CRj4n-FKiABrorgefLh1HjuXys3__6VbA_oD" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Click here</a> for document (approximately 500 pages)</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:Arial;font-size:100%;color:#222222;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial; border-collapse: collapse; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">The Independent Fact-Finding Mission on the Conflict in Georgia, established by a decision of the Council of the European Union on December 2, 2008, has issued its final report concluding that the 2008 conflict between Russia and Georgia was in violation of international humanitarian and human rights law. The report, which is meant to “[i]nvestigate the origins and the course of the conflict in Georgia,” gives a brief but telling overview of the internal and international elements that led to the shelling of the South Ossetian capital Tskhinvali by Georgian armed forces during the night of August 7 –8, 2008, and concludes that all parties involved had failed to fulfill their international obligations in the aftermath of the attack. <br /><br />The report analyzes military actions by Russia and Georgia separately. It begins by considering whether Georgia's initial shelling of Tskhinvali was in accordance with international law. The report concludes that the attack was not justifiable under international law, even if Georgia's claim of Russia's imminent attack was correct, because an “armed response would have to be both necessary <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">and</em> proportional.” The report then explains that since the initial attack against South Ossetian forces was illegal under international law, the subsequent counterattack against Georgian forces “did conform to international law in terms of legitimate self-defence.” But, applying the same principle of necessity and proportionality, the report adds that “any operations of South Ossetian forces outside of the purpose of repelling the Georgian armed attack, in particular acts perpetrated against ethnic Georgians inside and outside South Ossetia, must be considered as having violated International Humanitarian Law and in many cases also Human Rights Law.” The report indicates that the lack of “an ongoing armed attack by Russia before the start of the Georgian operation” meant that Georgia's initial attack —using force against Russian peacekeeping forces on Georgian territory—was not justified. <br /><br />In considering Russia's military actions, the report uses a different analysis. It notes that Russia's “immediate reaction in order to defend Russian peacekeepers” was legal so long as it was proportionate. However, with respect to Russia's subsequent “military campaign deeper into Georgia,” the report concludes “that much of the Russian military action went far beyond the reasonable limits of defence.”</p><blockquote style="margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 40px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 40px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">It follows . . . that insofar as such extended Russian military action reaching out into Georgia was conducted in violation of international law, Georgian military forces were acting in legitimate self-defence under Article 51 of the UN Charter. In a matter of a very few days, the pattern of legitimate and illegitimate military action had thus turned around between the two main actors Georgia and Russia.</blockquote><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">The remainder of the report deals with the questions of whether the use of force by Russia was justified as a “humanitarian intervention” and whether Russia was obligated to use military action to protect its citizens living in South Ossetia. (The report concludes that neither justification could be recognized.) <br /><br />The report also briefly discusses allegations of genocide and ethnic cleansing. With respect to claims of genocide, the report states that “allegations of genocide committed by the Georgian side in the context of the August 2008 conflict and its aftermath are neither founded in law nor substantiated by factual evidence.” As to the allegations of ethnic cleansing by South Ossetian forces or irregular armed groups, the report concludes that “several elements suggest the conclusion that ethnic cleansing was indeed practised against ethnic Georgians in South Ossetia both during and after the August 2008 conflict.” <br /><br />For more on the Mission's report, please refer to the above document.</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">Source: American Association of International Law</p></span></div>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-68896035160851933732009-10-17T08:47:00.000+05:002009-10-17T08:49:07.544+05:00United Nations Security Council Resolution 1889 (5 October 2009)<div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial; border-collapse: collapse; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; "><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102770141007&s=30063&e=001zO_-PM0nn6CZuDEsRBQiIAdQ0tCeFOXISdktdW0JRIfmKC-PMi4-kDxgvpq-CU6VTTAa4GQSceSVRSoRW1d0qsfFTQly19iQgLm1HzPdjt6e-3MN6Hcnu8yAzLv3x3mKh60QIVIcEQgVmwGC_xovrw==" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Click here</a> for document (approximately 5 pages)</span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:Arial;font-size:100%;color:#222222;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial; border-collapse: collapse; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">The United Nations Security Council has unanimously adopted a resolution requesting “Member States, international and regional organisations to take further measures to improve women's participation during all stages of peace processes, particularly in conflict resolution, post-conflict planning and peacebuilding, including by enhancing their engagement in political and economic decision-making at early stages of recovery processes.” The Council reaffirmed the importance of resolution 1325 (2000) on “women and peace and security,” requesting the Secretary General to provide periodic reports on its implementation. <br /><br />The Council also condemned sexual violence against women during armed conflict, calling upon all parties to conflicts to stop such violations and set up mechanisms for the prosecution and investigations of these actions. Furthermore, the Council urged Member States and the international community to develop plans and strategies to address women's needs in post-conflict situations. Finally, the Council asked the “Secretary General to report to the Security Council within 12 months on addressing women's participation and inclusion in peacebuilding and planning in the aftermath of conflict”.</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">Source: American Association of International Law</p></span></div>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-28471583698906612532009-10-17T08:46:00.001+05:002009-10-17T08:49:59.858+05:00United Nations Security Council Resolution 1888 (30 September 2009)<div><br /></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" border-collapse: collapse; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; font-family:Arial;font-size:12px;"><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102770141007&s=30063&e=001zO_-PM0nn6CZuDEsRBQiIAdQ0tCeFOXISdktdW0JRIfmKC-PMi4-kDxgvpq-CU6VTTAa4GQSceSVRSoRW1d0qsfFTQly19iQgLm1HzPdjt6e-3MN6Hcnu8yAzLv3x3mKh60QIVIcEQgVmwGC_xovrw==" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Click here</a> for document (approximately 7 pages)</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">The United Nations Security Council has unanimously adopted a resolution that provides measures and mechanisms to address violence against women and children during armed conflict. In particular, the Council “decid[ed] to include specific provisions . . . for the protection of women and children from rape and other sexual violence in the mandates of United Nations peacekeeping operations.” The Security Council also expressed the intent to identify “women's protection advisers” (WPAs), to be chosen from gender and human rights experts, and has asked the Secretary General to assess “the need for, and the number and roles of WPAs” in United Nations peacekeeping operations.<br /><br />The Council asked the Secretary General “to appoint a Special Representative to provide coherent and strategic leadership, to work effectively to strengthen existing United Nations coordination mechanisms, and to engage in advocacy efforts . . . to address . . . sexual violence in armed conflict.” In addition, the Council requested that the Secretary General “identify and take the appropriate measures to deploy rapidly a team of experts to situations of particular concern with respect to sexual violence in armed conflict.” Furthermore, the Council affirmed its aim to consider acts of sexual violence against children and women “when adopting or renewing targeting sanctions in situations of armed conflict.” Consequently, the Security Council requested that the Secretary General “present specific proposals on ways to ensure monitoring and reporting in a more effective and efficient way within the existing United Nations system on the protection of women and children from rape and other sexual violence in armed conflict and post-conflict situations”.</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">Source: American Association of International Law</p></span></div>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-30864642062344116132009-10-15T09:38:00.000+05:002009-10-15T09:41:19.386+05:00United Nations University, Japan, Call for Applications for Upcomimg International Courses<a href="http://www.unu.edu/ic/">http://www.unu.edu/ic/</a><br /><br />Applications are due 31 January 2010. Some fellowships are available.<br /><br />The United Nations University will organize the tenth regular session of its six-week UNU International Courses (UNU-IC) at UNU Centre in Tokyo, Japan, from 10 May through 18 June 2010.<br /><br />The UNU-IC programme is designed for postgraduate students and young professionals (with a college or university degree) in various occupations in Japan and abroad who wish to pursue careers in international fields in public-service or private organizations, including the United Nations, multinational corporations and non-governmental organizations as well as national foreign service organizations.<br /><br />The courses are designed to provide analyses of global issues from both theoretical and empirical perspectives.<br /><br />CORE COURSE<br /><br />UN System: Pressing Issues and Sustainable Solutions<br /><br />OPTIONAL COURSES<br /><br />Peace and Human Rights<br /><br />Global Change and Sustainability<br /><br />International Development and Cooperation<br /><br />Core Course: This is compulsory for all students. There shall be one lecture of 120-minute duration (60 minutes of lecture and 60 minutes of Q&A) and two sessions of tutorials of 90-minute duration per session.<br /><br /><a href="http://www.unu.edu/ic/">http://www.unu.edu/ic/</a>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-85610570680318553032009-10-15T09:34:00.001+05:002009-10-15T09:38:15.533+05:00Уточнение Военной доктрины РФ вызвано актуальными угрозами для страныУточнение Военной доктрины РФ, новую редакцию которой планируется подготовить для представления президенту России до конца года, вызвано актуальными опасностями и угрозами для страны, заявил секретарь Совета безопасности РФ Николай Патрушев в интервью газете "Известия", которое опубликовано в среду.<br /><br />Ранее Патрушев заявил, что доктрина, по сути, не является новой разработкой, а базируется и использует положения, которые были в предыдущей. "Что касается положений о возможности применения ядерного оружия, то этот раздел Военной доктрины сформулирован в духе сохранения за Российской Федерацией статуса ядерной державы, способной осуществить ядерное сдерживание потенциальных противников от развязывания агрессии против России и ее союзников. Это является в обозримой перспективе важнейшим приоритетом нашей страны", - сказал секретарь Совета безопасности РФ.<br /><br />Также, по его словам, скорректированы условия использования ядерного оружия при отражении агрессии с применением обычных средств поражения не только в крупномасштабной, но и в региональной и даже в локальной войне. "Кроме того, предусматривается вариантность возможности применения ядерного оружия в зависимости от условий обстановки и намерений вероятного противника. В критических для национальной безопасности ситуациях не исключается нанесение в том числе упреждающего (превентивного) ядерного удара по агрессору", - заявил Патрушев.<br /><br />По словам Патрушева, результаты анализа военно-стратегической обстановки в мире и перспектив ее развития до 2020 года свидетельствуют о смещении акцентов от крупномасштабных военных конфликтов к локальным войнам и вооруженным конфликтам.<br /><br />"Хотя не утратили своей актуальности и имевшиеся ранее военные опасности и угрозы для нашей страны. Так, не прекращается деятельность по приему новых членов в НАТО, активизируется военная деятельность блока, интенсивно проводятся учения стратегических сил США с отработкой вопросов управления применением стратегического ядерного оружия. Сохраняются такие дополнительные дестабилизирующие факторы, как тенденция распространения ядерных, химических, биологических технологий, производства оружия массового уничтожения, возрастающий уровень международного терроризма, обостряющаяся борьба за топливно-энергетические и другие сырьевые ресурсы. Не ликвидированы до конца и внутренние военные опасности, о чем свидетельствует обстановка на Северном Кавказе", - сказал Патрушев.<br /><br />Таким образом, по его словам, возникли объективные условия для уточнения Военной доктрины, которая должна предполагать гибкое и своевременное реагирование на текущие и перспективные изменения военно-политической и военно-стратегической обстановки на среднесрочный период. "Определено, что Россия считает своей важнейшей задачей предотвращение и сдерживание от развязывания любых военных конфликтов. При этом сформулированы основные подходы к решению этой задачи. В то же время подчеркивается, что Россия считает правомерным применение ВС и других войск для отражения агрессии против нее или ее союзников, поддержания (восстановления) мира по решению Совета Безопасности ООН, других структур коллективной безопасности", - заявил Патрушев.<br /><br />Права на данный материал принадлежат <a href="http://redirect.subscribe.ru/state.army.vpn,75668/20091014195243/14525=12809=t=4979/m14919146/-/www.rian.ru/" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">РИАНовости</a> (14.10.2009).Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-77072699194612822242009-10-14T12:46:00.000+05:002009-10-14T12:48:18.385+05:00При Минобороны создается центр подготовки к информационной войнеПрезидент Дмитрий Медведев поручил министру обороны Анатолию Сердюкову подготовить предложения по созданию центра подготовки специалистов информационного противоборства. Как сообщает GZT.RU со ссылкой на источник в военном ведомстве, министру дали месяц сроку. "Вопрос сейчас всесторонне изучается, и пока неясно, где именно появится этот центр. Решение президента было принято как одна из мер усиления информационного противоборства в интересах военных союзов, в частности, Организации Договора о коллективной безопасности (ОДКБ). Прежде всего внимание будет уделено применению различных технологий, в том числе интернета, в интересах общественно-информационного воздействия, умения правильно парировать на негативные формулировки тех или иных СМИ", – заявил собеседник издания. Источник напомнил, что специалистов по информационному противоборству не хватало летом этого года, когда в СМИ прошли сообщения о жалобах белорусских крестьян, что военная техника портит поля. В результате программа российско-белорусских учений "Запад-2009" была серьезно сокращена. В Минобороны считают, что местным жителям недостаточно хорошо объяснили, что отклонения ракет от заданных траекторий исключаются. Генштаб еще в 90-е годы рассматривал возможность создать отдельное информационное направление, напомнил изданию бывший командующий ВДВ Георгий Шпак. Тогда эта идея не была реализована. Член Совета по внешней и оборонной политике Виталий Шлыков пояснил, что военным сейчас необходимо "оказывать противодействие" "по самому широкому кругу вопросов, начиная с качества нашей военной техники и заканчивая поведением наших солдат в разных этнокультурных сферах".<br /><br />Права на данный материал принадлежат <a href="http://redirect.subscribe.ru/state.army.vpn,75668/20091013203553/14886=12765=t=4979/m14919146/-/www.grani.ru/" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">Грани.ру</a> (8.10.2009).Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-86877280031428816302009-10-12T09:32:00.001+05:002009-10-12T09:34:14.591+05:00Essex Human Rights Review: Call for PapersDear colleagues,<br /><br />The Essex Human Rights Review is a student-led peer-reviewed international journal associated with the prestigious Human Rights Centre at the University of Essex. It publishes original scholarly works addressing contemporary issues and debates in human rights, and encourage submissions from a broad range of disciplines, including law, philosophy, political science, sociology, anthropology and economics. <br /><br />Contributions from academics, practitioners and postgraduate students are welcomed. The EHRR accepts academic articles, conference reports, book reviews and edited transcripts of interviews with key figures in the field of human rights. It also encourages the submission of short notes and commentaries on recent developments, on-going cases, current initiatives and research relevant to human rights protection.<br /><br />Submissions are accepted on a rolling basis and must be in electronic form. Articles submitted to the EHRR should be original, previously unpublished material and should not be under consideration for any other publication at the same time.<br /><br />All submissions should be in English and must adhere to the EHRR style sheet, which is available on our website at <a href="http://projects.%20essex.ac.%20uk/ehrr/Submissi%20onGuidelines.%20html" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">http://projects. essex.ac. uk/ehrr/Submissi onGuidelines. html</a><br /><br />Submissions should be sent to <a href="mailto:ehrr@essex.ac.%20uk" rel="nofollow">ehrr@essex.ac. uk</a><br /><br />Current and archived issues of the EHRR may be viewed at <a href="http://www.ehrr.org/" rel="nofollow">www.ehrr.org</a>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-24087351702473607302009-10-10T09:47:00.002+05:002009-10-10T09:51:55.477+05:00ICTY Special Chamber Decision In the Case Against Florence Hartmann<span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family: Arial; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 12px; line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; "><table width="100%" border="0" cellspacing="7" cellpadding="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px; font-size: inherit; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: table; "><tbody style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><tr style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: table-row; vertical-align: inherit; "><td class="style66" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: table-cell; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><table width="100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" style="border-collapse: collapse; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px; font-size: inherit; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: table; "><tbody style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><tr style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: table-row; vertical-align: inherit; "><td width="68%" align="left" valign="top" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: table-cell; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; "><br /><span class="style48" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); font-weight: bold; "><u style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#author" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">By Benjamin E. Brockman-Hawe</a></u></span></td><td width="32%" align="left" valign="top" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: table-cell; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; "> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: table-row; vertical-align: inherit; "><td align="left" valign="top" class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: table-cell; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; "><br /><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><strong style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Introduction</strong></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><img src="http://www.asil.org/images/091009insight.jpg" align="left" style="border-top-width: 0px; border-right-width: 0px; border-bottom-width: 0px; border-left-width: 0px; border-style: initial; border-color: initial; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; " />On September 14, 2009, a Specially Appointed Trial Chamber of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[1]</a></span> (ICTY) convicted French journalist and former ICTY official Florence Hartmann of contempt of court for disclosing confidential information in violation of two orders of the Appeals Chamber.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[2]</a></span> Hartmann is not the first journalist to be indicted by the tribunal for contempt, but she is the first journalist found guilty of the offense for revealing portions of confidential judgments rather than the identity of witnesses or content of witness statements. She is also the first former employee of the ICTY to face allegations of contempt. In convicting Hartmann, the Special Chamber developed the law on the relationship between the right to freedom of expression and the need to maintain the confidentiality of court proceedings.</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><strong style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Background</strong></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">Between October 2000 and April 2006, Florence Hartmann served as Spokesperson for the Office of the Prosecutor at the ICTY. In 2007 Hartmann released a book, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Paix et Chatiment: Les Guerres Secretes de la Politiqueet de la Justice Internationales (Peace and Punishment: the Secret Wars of Politics and International Justice)</em>, and in 2008 posted an online article, “Vital Genocide Documents Concealed,” on the Bosnian Institute website,<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[3]</a></span> alleging that in two separate confidential decisions the Appeals Chamber declined to release transcripts of meetings of Serbia's Supreme Defense Council (SDC) submitted by Serbia to the ICTY during the <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Milošević</em> trial.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[4]</a></span> According to Hartmann, the submissions contained evidence of Serbia's involvement in the massacre of Bosnian Muslims in Srebrenica, established “that the Serbian State had authority over its accomplices in Bosnia,”<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[5]</a></span> and were kept confidential by ICTY judges “for the sole purpose of shielding Serbia from responsibility before another UN court.”<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[6]</a></span></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">An Order in Lieu of an Indictment of Contempt was issued by the Trial Chamber in August 2008,<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[7]</a></span> and the subsequently filed Prosecutors' final brief alleged that the disclosure of “dates, parties and names of judges along side the contents and purported effects of the [confidentially filed and issued] decisions” violated the Orders of the Appeals Chamber.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[8]</a></span></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-weight: bold; ">The Decision of the Trial Chamber</span></span></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><b><br /></b></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">The Special Chamber carefully followed the precedent established in <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Tadić</em> by asserting its inherent power to deal with allegations of contempt.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[9]</a></span> Hartmann was charged with violation of Rule 77(A)(ii) of the Rules of Procedure and Evidence (RPE), which permits the Tribunal to hold in contempt any individual who knowingly and willfully interferes with the administration of justice by disclosing information “relating to. . .proceedings in knowing violation of an order of the Chamber.”<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[10]</a></span></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">As a preliminary matter, the Chamber dismissed the arguments of the Defense that it considered “wholly lacking in merit.”<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[11]</a></span> This included the Defense's selective prosecution claim that Hartmann was targeted despite the fact that “others very publically discussed the reasoning and purported effect of the impugned decisions without exposing themselves to contempt proceedings.”<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[12]</a></span></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">i. Elements of Contempt</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">Much of the Chamber's opinion considered whether the Prosecution had established the <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">actus reus</em>and <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">mens rea</em> of contempt.</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">With respect to the <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">actus reus</em>, Hartmann's attorneys argued that the Appeals Chamber decisions granting confidential status to documents handed over by Serbia only protected the documents themselves, not the legal reasoning of the Appeals Chamber decisions.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[13]</a></span> The Chamber declined to endorse this view, and held that “[t]he application of the law to the facts is confidential by virtue of the mix of the two. Exclusion of legal reasoning from the realm of protection by confidentiality would compromise confidential party submissions fundamental to the Chamber's legal reasoning.” The Chamber was similarly unpersuaded by Hartmann's arguments that the Tribunal, by citing to the confidential decisions in its jurisprudence, had itself engaged in an <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">actus contrarius</em> with the effect of nullifying the protective orders,<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[14]</a></span> or that Serbia waived the Court-imposed protective measures by publicly disclosing the facts protected under their aegis.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[15]</a></span> The Chamber concluded its discussion of<em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">actus reus</em> holding that citation to the title of confidential Appeals Chamber decisions by the Court was not an <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">actus contrarius</em> and that “a decision remains confidential until a Chamber explicitly decides otherwise.”<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[16]</a></span></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">Hartmann's attorneys also requested that the Special Chamber find, consistent with the opinion of the<em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Beqaj</em> and <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Maglov</em> Trial Chamber decisions, that Hartmann did not act with the specific intent to interfere with the administration of justice, and thus did not fulfill the <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">mens rea</em> requirements of Rule 77.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[17]</a></span> The Special Chamber rejected this argument, holding that <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Beqaj</em> and <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Maglov</em> had been “developed by the more recent Appeals Chamber rulings that a violation of a Chamber's order as such interferes with the Tribunal's administration of justice.”<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[18]</a></span> The Court found that Hartmann acted with knowledge that her disclosure was in violation of an Appeals Chamber order when she published her book and article.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[19]</a></span></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">ii. Defenses</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">In the <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Jović</em><span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[20]</a></span> and <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Margetić</em><span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[21]</a></span> cases, two Trial Chambers of the ICTY confronted the need to weigh the right to freedom of expression and freedom of the press against the equally critical need to protect confidential information related to court proceedings.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[22]</a></span> Indeed, the Special Chamber relied on <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Jović</em>and <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Margetić</em> when it dismissed Hartmann's claims that “criminalisation of her conduct would, in the circumstances, constitute a violation of her fundamental rights and, thus, be <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">ultra vires</em> of the statutory powers and jurisdiction of the Tribunal.”<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[23]</a></span></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">However, the <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Hartmann</em> decision is noteworthy for its discussion of European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) case law. The Chamber noted:</p><blockquote style="margin-top: 1em; margin-right: 40px; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 40px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">[The ECtHR,] while recognising the vital role played by the press in a democratic society, has nonetheless emphasised that ‘journalists cannot, in principle, be released from their duty to abide by the ordinary criminal law on the basis that Article 10 affords them protection', and indeed, Article 10(2) of the ECHR [European Convention on Human Rights] ‘defines the boundaries of the exercise of freedom of expression.' Pursuant to Article 10(2) of the ECHR, the exercise of freedom of expression may be subject to such ‘formalities, conditions, restrictions or penalties as are prescribed by law and are necessary in a democratic society for preventing the disclosure of information received in confidence, or maintaining the authority and impartiality of the judiciary.' These interferences with the freedom of expression are applicable ‘even with respect to press coverage of matters of serious public concern.' Notably, the ECHR recognises that freedom of expression may not only be lawfully subject to restrictions, but also subject to penalties.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[24]</a></span></blockquote><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">During the trial, Hartmann's counsel emphasized that the information revealed in her book and article had already been in the public domain.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[25]</a></span> While the Chamber was persuaded that “some of the information . . .had indeed been in the public domain prior to the publication . . .,”<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[26]</a></span> after balancing the public interest of receiving the information with the public interest of facilitating the administration of justice by leaving the information concealed,<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[27]</a></span> the Chamber noted that the confidentiality orders on the Appeals Chambers judgments had not been lifted<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[28]</a></span> and that as a result Hartmann was liable for contempt.</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">iii. Sentencing</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">Consistent with precedent, the Special Chamber considered Hartmann's sentence in light of the gravity of the conduct and the need to deter its repetition, balanced against various mitigating and aggravating factors.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[29]</a></span> With respect to the former, the Chamber found that “the Accused's conduct has created a real risk that states may not be as forthcoming in their cooperation with the Tribunal where provision of evidentiary material is concerned.”<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[30]</a></span> With respect to the latter, the Court took into account, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">inter alia</em>, the indigency of Hartmann, her reputation as a reliable and trustworthy journalist, and her debt to the publisher of her book.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[31]</a></span> She was fined 7,000 Euros.</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><strong style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">The Significance of the Decision</strong></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><b><br /></b></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">One of the most interesting features of the <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Hartmann</em> decision is the Chamber's approach to the freedom of expression defense. Since neither the <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Jović</em> nor <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Margetić</em> Trial Chambers examined contemporary ECtHR case law on this issue, the Court's newfound interest in balancing competing public interests can be attributed to its more thorough consideration of the ECtHR precedent, where a balancing test has been employed for many years.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[32]</a></span> This is a step forward for the Court, and the decision to balance interests is in conformity with human rights law and ICTY precedent.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[33]</a></span></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">The Chamber's approach to sentencing is an additional interesting feature of this case. Rule 77(G) of the RPE authorizes the Tribunal to impose in contempt cases a fine up 100,000 Euros and/or a term of imprisonment not to exceed seven years. It is surprising that Hartmann's punishment was not more severe in light of the potentially “real” risk that states may limit future cooperation with the ICTY. Although historically the Court has distributed punishments well below the maximum threshold established in the Rules, it has demonstrated a willingness to punish journalists with prison time when an accused disclosed the identity of multiple protected witnesses,<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[34]</a></span> and fines not below 15,000 Euros when the content of witness testimony was revealed.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[35]</a></span></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">It is not immediately clear why the Chamber would impose a lenient punishment Hartmann. One possible explanation is that the Chamber was prompted by ECtHR case law to take the unprecedented step of mitigating Hartmann's sentence in light of her reputation in the professional community as a “trustworthy and reliable author” and an “objective and reliable journalist.”<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[36]</a></span> Alternatively, Hartmann's sentence may be the result of a perception that states are better situated than individuals to protect themselves against threats to their security resulting from unapproved disclosure, and it is therefore unnecessary to sentence with the same vehemence demonstrated by the Court in the witness-information cases.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[37]</a></span></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">Finally, the Chamber's dismissal of Hartmann's selective prosecution arguments is noteworthy for its explanation that the defense has “no basis in either fact or law . . . .”<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[38]</a></span> This determination is difficult to justify in light of the Appeals Chamber's decision in <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Delalić</em>, which confirmed that an accused who can show “evidence from which a clear inference can be drawn that the Prosecutor was motivated in that case by a factor inconsistent with [the principle of equality before the law]”<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[39]</a></span> was entitled to satisfaction. These decisions can only be reconciled if one adopts the disputatious view that either former employees of the Tribunal or persons brought before a chamber on contempt charges are not entitled to the same fair trial rights extended to defendants accused of ‘core crimes'.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[40]</a></span></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><strong style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Conclusion</strong></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><b><br /></b></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">There is substantial tension between the principles of freedom of expression and the fair administration of justice. As international law crystallizes with respect to these issues, the <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Hartmann </em>judgment is a milestone in the development of an international standard in this area.</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; ">Viewed against this backdrop, it is unfortunate that the opinion of the Chamber does little to address the lingering perception in the international law community that issues of cost, objectivity and legality make the Trial Chambers of the ICTY a poor venue for handling contempt proceedings, particularly in cases where the Court is one of the injured parties.<span class="style65" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; font-size: 12px; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_edn1" name="_ednref1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[41]</a></span> The conviction of Hartmann, herself a former Court employee, brings to the foreground the question of whether there ought to be an “outer limit” on the power of international courts to hear contempt cases.</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><strong style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><b style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><a rel="nofollow" name="author" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(0, 51, 153); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "></a></b>About the Author</strong><br /><br />Benjamin E. Brockman-Hawe, an ASIL member, is an International Law Fellow at the American Society of International Law.</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><strong style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Endnotes</strong></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><b><br /></b></p><div style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><div id="edn1" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style57" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref1" name="_edn1" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[1]</a></span> Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, S.C. Res. 827, U.N. SCOR, 48th Sess., 3217th mtg. at 29 (1993).</p></div><div id="edn2" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref2" name="_edn2" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[2]</a></span> In the Case Against Hartmann, Case No. IT-02-54-R77.5, Judgment on Allegations of Contempt, ¶ 89 (Sept. 14, 2009), <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em> <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8UmS1JQOC9Xus5Hlvig_L7viwBPgk-es6dG8BWuz-wNbSRgevDOxwVR-6tpE8o0SSpZKIniJyDtEgMBiJY1fpWmb2AuK7zllV0l9BD2qCIu3X28IW9e-wk0Hd3TDpBICkpLlKpq6lSK_EJk4wnkzH9XsksIlerYIXd9zWcY7tRCAUwB117wymvK" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://www.icty.org/x/cases/contempt_hartmann<br />/tjug/en/090914judgement.pdf</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009) [hereinafter Judgment].</p></div><div id="edn3" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref3" name="_edn3" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[3]</a></span> In the Case Against Hartmann, Case No. IT-02-54-R77.5, Prosecution Final Trial Brief, ¶ 7-8 (Aug. 25, 2009), <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8XWaVviBNEkDg4TC78wo2sbMl_YvJ5NA82P3U22hewFsO3tFd6T8N3yla9vLh9ASrnpiOHqOdemsFiPuRf_311wK7C4Nq2kq4-g9RDkoQCxwgYx8dr1xKL29wJwA1TvGIBvjb4p6uBOywWRFMsYT20hC8p8--z4jEtkET0H6r_TYkiIsKkQosTy" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "> http://www.icty.org/x/cases/contempt_hartmann/custom5/en/090825.pdf</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009).</p></div><div id="edn4" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref4" name="_edn4" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[4]</a></span> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Id.</em> ¶ 15.</p></div><div id="edn5" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref5" name="_edn5" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[5]</a></span> FLORENCE HARTMANN, PAIX ET CHATIMENT: LES GUERRES SECRETES DE LA POLITIQUE ET DE LA JUSTICE INTERNATIONALES 120, 122 (2007) (English translation <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8U0TKv-czr5zQFZ_TigaESfuX4OdqRgfNaEmfbJizHutm6uYMa9t4u-c98zjfEromm3aIaTlO6vSpDh2e1mOnBP8iZBjh1Yo5EsDKK0vaBQMH0SDqjz1e1SLCTK2UJX29Yo7akxnotl1P_Ap1_5mim97Sr-MnT6aMonz5bMJarls4qPh50zAwvCVia_jHW7MQAbmfzyf9wf6Qai-to-5tEcwfbMOL_-E3CL17bf5NmVE091Sa0l9KZZx7UKEzNES0ayI1aQG984FSfmWJW2b4cQuazOVkauz38eesI_IyCums-8mJYRrTVIPBYQFhcT09WV_IMwDbL-iZVT-cjh768T" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://docs.google.com/gview?a=vq=cache:D98GX7eEW0IJ:www.preserverla<br />justiceinternationale.org/docs/PeaceAndPunishment_EN.pdf+hartmann+pea<br />ce+and+punishmenthl=engl=us</a>) (last visited Sept. 20, 2009).</p></div><div id="edn6" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref6" name="_edn6" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[6]</a></span> Florence Hartmann, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Vital Genocide Documents Concealed</em> (Jan. 2008), <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8VhTweMKtO3CUZO0DZoEctyR7REer4QdF-G4w0lri_2CEXxReGk2lBTwmQmHHoTg56-Orc_Um-B2WIVk-qwo6U9NZyGLpzPrAuZJpbojsYiGvDA0fcbXcTJ7uz_uJsNjPHm9rVG0GgXZIbohHoOM3yyqmAoLgDKH8s=" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://www.bosnia.org.uk/news/news_body.cfm?newsid=2341</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009). <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">See also</em>Application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide (Bosn. & Herz. v. Serb. & Mont.), I.C.J. ¶¶ 297, 438 (Feb. 26, 2007), <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em> <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8XPIR7Gq_V_Sxs6Y541QGX0dJfqOFbzdhgXT4VwrDPY8MI86b1lUhB_uMHfvs-4P5UJBkFS2_i1D-8vpf3F67Fg04i1hJVEwkrGcFkncSdM029lL-zCMquRcSEzsjN0JyShFNa6wUWQE4wQMZJnDbyi" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/91/13685.pdf</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009). Hartmann believed that the confidentiality orders issued by the ICTY determined the outcome of the ICJ proceedings, asserting that “[i]f the ICJ had possessed evidence that Serbia was ‘in control' of the Republika Srpska authorities or of the Bosnia Serbian Army, the Court would have not cleared Serbia of genocide at Srebrenica.” Hartman,<em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Vital Genocide Documents Concealed</em>.</p></div><div id="edn7" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref7" name="_edn7" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[7]</a></span> In the Case Against Hartmann, Case No. IT-02-54-R77.5, Order in Lieu of Indictment on Contempt (Aug. 27, 2008), <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em> <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8U7oCnrx_PQw5llEF7aP6VVVCEI02-nrkFoW10kisLsC1S78qrx6q7xdyA5KcsG-wb-RrzB1VVjUtH_jdf3CNAG1KMCpGJake4ogygFXK6BiwrYW2AqL2Cu3aZ5ZVfwz8IoxRVQxty2TsZ9Xf4-Rn3v174Xkvdotb0MFMqKnj3Y6g==" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://www.icty.org/x/cases/contempt_hartmann/ind/en/080827.pdf</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009).</p></div><div id="edn8" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[8]</a></span> Prosecution Final Brief, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 3, ¶ 15.</p></div><div id="edn9" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[9]</a></span> Prosecutor v. Tadić, Case No. IT-94-1, Judgment on Allegations of Contempt Against Prior Counsel, Milan Vujin, ¶18 (Jan. 31, 2000), <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em> <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8UVTVyaWDfyS0TygpTaajGxkvXkGNFlEsP_Ikkh45sXU4-NMfKFhV3ZHk8ogjXcconMnG5YOAcIiC3aby25jmMAqXiR-KE6pXCY4lw2w4ybgC1ghYYTjnjvb62hSpDBv5FzpsDHht2qTQM1ipry60-G11QdqsgkRBG67fx3JpKllQ==" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://www.icty.org/x/cases/tadic/acjug/en/vuj-aj000131e.pdf</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009).</p></div><div id="edn10" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[10]</a></span> Rules of Procedure and Evidence of the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia, IT/32/Rev. 43 (July 24, 2009), <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em> <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8WDPdoTnp0epnzOBOwwtD0_joONatjYtOzDRT-USanius5W9XtQF4bIxbRITy7-xdqXWtkgXLucjzWeLNHtvF3E97HfeZFMz-ZejjFycHjlhajFQf7J8VQPS04EARJDXMPHZCUu3_XncAsYVB4UZJpN3PkEAeN3QHBUf8KMmLhJcpm3SQHTlsKEaCIPGXSmOGOm4TRMkD8xug==" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://www.icty.org/x/file/Legal%20Library/Rules_<br />procedure_evidence/IT032_Rev43_en.pdf</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009).</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[11]</a></span> Judgment, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 2, ¶ 23.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[12]</a></span> In the Case Against Hartmann, Case No. IT-02-54-R77.5, Defense Final Trial Brief, ¶ 14 (July 2, 2009), <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em> <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8VTQa64bK6-NCkJpLcgCt3yhjqZr76jsn-6g9tZyJBWrk-s_PyseKa1EhC3o0NMcFekX6qi-XJCUEocu5YUaSfqd60yhx0FbWI5xTXPfL9eQ78rYdS_xEFNvIJv_6Ncz8jG64zJn0Yyzx3oMkcTDcnYOVtYptrsbn8JvNz3rMmGR2hU_ofDjwnO" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://www.icty.org/x/cases/contempt_hartmann/custom5/en/090702.pdf</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009).</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[13]</a></span> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Id.</em> ¶ 6.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[14]</a></span> Judgment, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 2, ¶ 40.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[15]</a></span> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Id.</em> ¶ 41.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[16]</a></span> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Id.</em> ¶ 46.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[17]</a></span> Defense Final Brief, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 12, ¶¶ 77(iii), 78-87, 90-94.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[18]</a></span> Judgment, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 2, ¶ 53.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[19]</a></span> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Id.</em> ¶ 62.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[20]</a></span> Prosecutor v. Jović, Case No. IT-95-14 and 14/2-R77, Judgment (Aug. 30, 2006), <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8U0EXlV9q6a7xNW55WGoS_X9WPW7VVu8vQBZlxIOSn6hOmHKwmMLT0OtCHb29A7ugYPonRKDXUBw5wYUuEVw39XxHkwjyZH-cNuh1vG4LFVQR1fBLiSU1om0PGIeJYgHKnrnEqm4ihYSNZ6s4IU9_6Opw924pFNFQZRm9dusSgiDTTjwrlaWzEh" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://www.icty.org/x/cases/contempt_jovic/<br />tjug/en/jov-jud060830e.pdf</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009).</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[21]</a></span> Prosecutor v. Margetić, Case No. IT 95-14-R77.6, Judgment on Allegations of Contempt (Feb. 7, 2007), <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em> <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8VY6XQBg8V3px1Ph7UZhvsNvNTX-0t3SokKhPcduM9P-I5pi9CXdgFU_USyr6NVgWdpBezdV0z2euyuus2V_-SDd_YO6pod0K-ZoVX5_rzAnLzyzdpb_M_TodKTtuwC6nAAqXZcTE9Ul_xnwJY6sX4dRcm2HIGeCkg4hCm7YhdSj7ij9zBPROIrsLGch05Od5I=" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://www.icty.org/x/cases/contempt_margetic<br />/tjug/en/margetic_judgement.pdf</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009).</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[22]</a></span> Jović, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 20, ¶ 23.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[23]</a></span> Defense Final Brief, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 12, ¶ 124.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[24]</a></span> Judgment, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 2, ¶ 70. It is not entirely clear why the Special Chamber wished to call attention to the provisions of the ECHR that provide for penalties. Perhaps the Chamber was seeking to address the suggestions that, in the process of punishing those found guilty of contempt of court, it may be violating the principle of <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">nulla poena sine lege</em>. For more on this issue, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">see, e.g.</em> Silvia D'Ascoli,<em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Sentencing Contempt of Court in International Criminal Justice</em>, 53 J. INT'L CRIM. J. 735 (2007).</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[25]</a></span> Defense Final Brief, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 12, ¶ 35.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[26]</a></span> Judgment, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 2, ¶ 79.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[27]</a></span> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Id.</em> ¶ 73.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[28]</a></span> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Id.</em> ¶ 46.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[29]</a></span> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Id.</em> ¶ 75.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[30]</a></span> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Id.</em> ¶ 80.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[31]</a></span> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Id.</em> ¶ 85.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[32]</a></span> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">See, e.g.</em>, Stoll v. Switzerland, App. No. 69698/01, Eur. Ct. H.R. 141 (2007) (quoted by the Special Chamber) <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em> <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8WIiCziWgXsjfMTtGAbl0IPFUIpGPRtPc-DuYI7JRRsssl4NWmlPXhp4uGEBBzjVsaG0I3_oj7U13AIQGjv2LZ0SUrgmMctnynELMXurrlE5ExVR143bF5QLMkbK0GJ-QlMFJZW_Nkdfrqx_PnkrXOZUAa1YFrIiIxuaHaoEAgeLPgJPSQJf2PiBocW7rMeNvxD0TUm7t0tAIFwgN8lYe0UvdzPwWS5IKQAnANxi2Wm0QRS_qZ5LEz5mup_kTUNsbffNaARhnvQXxcnXJW-RHM7wWfO4Xyjw0hVYVFfA3jzcyjlT1pQRUus" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?action=htmldocumentId=<br />826926portal=hbkmsource=externalbydocnumbertable=F69A27FD8FB86<br />142BF01C1166DEA398649</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009).</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[33]</a></span> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">See</em> Prosecutor v. Karadžić, Case No. IT-95-5/18-I, Decision on Radovan Karadžić's Request for Reversal of Denial of Contact with Journalist, ¶ 23 (Feb. 12, 2009), <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8W_YHXW6NeAdF8pUY1s1GBymSNaXcKqDk-lykekaGMKb8pAbQ_Nxil_LU2vj1h9rt951Sqdl2XQvm1Ml72-iYvGkq6_Cn279CXxLjmILwXc6omN2nGERV93YHw4Ne5EYiJfXNtg3_Qs_PI046okfk_Ch4Zwzk3p-Pg=" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://www.icty.org/x/cases/karadzic/presdec/en/090212.pdf</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009); <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Prosecutor v. Brdjanin & Talić</em>, Case No. IT-99-36-AR73.9, Decision on Interlocutory Appeal, ¶ 45-55 (Dec. 11, 2002),<em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em> <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8XC7WNBaLN1JBgxfA5Nm6S9_k_UP9gqF5YHGkJzzwJsbSwFZLG-2Y7Kr6Rae9Ap--CYiIF6pHM8u7AKNyynqlaV1Y7MjrYJNqc7KkU5IVYOf9ok2NuTwPHFT98FuBF8iF2nZUG8mpepjMt2iLNADuB2CCiwUdpIFZgBLuUCZnrhgw==" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://www.icty.org/x/cases/brdanin/acdec/en/randall021211.htm</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009).</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[34]</a></span> Margetić, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 21, ¶ 94.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[35]</a></span> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">See, e.g.</em>, Prosecutor v. Marijačić & Rebić, Case No. IT-95-14-R77.2, Judgment, ¶ 54 (Mar. 10, 2006), <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em> <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8XEN4MqEqc1WI-ORBIBtgyTLTwZWa8EHn21aK88JyxwKpwHF5cuaJQOTaIaZQMbFGD_29ydKg-wYBqwEtKkWmEXWfPWCmkjRzUvFNJbYmSr9M2BTamGdyB1ehKAP9s3Wj0hJviQyggFyR2xtMrUmxoT5Q-H4SzsSreWPrWE_wYJdtNUXtlc5h8sSUKG227BRyg=" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://www.icty.org/x/cases/contempt_marijacic_rebic/tjug/en/reb-tcj060310e.pdf</a>(last visited Sept. 20, 2009); Jović, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 20, ¶ 27.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[36]</a></span> Judgment, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 2, ¶ 85. The regular approach of the ECtHR is to only limit journalists' freedom of expression in cases were principles of journalistic integrity have been violated. Douglas Voorhoof, Seminar on the European Protection of Freedom of Expression: Reflections on Some Recent Restrictive Trends, Comments (Oct. 10, 2008), <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em> <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8V8BIQ3vlkk039qwP_ANZi2CvIdFyG4QCPj_UTourH4Ptcm0fU4jms96cjle8UxPnYbp2DpredGebIbkPK-UfepGedR1qUowIrbv0gQ8LSeuhu1eceGeGJ2-VJt4M6nOUhuMWt9Tj8q5wZ714PGLt8jXQNHuP28agpANDyWcewNVrg6YULP0gmSmYK7i7bs4UM=" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://www-ircm.u-strasbg.fr/seminaire_oct2008/<br />docs/Voorhoof_Final_conclusions.pdf</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009). <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">See also</em> Stoll, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 32, ¶ 104.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[37]</a></span> Margetić, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 21, ¶ 70.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[38]</a></span> Judgment, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">supra</em> note 2, ¶ 23, n53.</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[39]</a></span> Prosecutor v. Delalić et al., Case No. IT-96-21, Appeals Chamber Judgment, ¶ 611 (Feb. 20, 2001),<em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">available at</em> <a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102755812646&s=30063&e=0017NAqABh4i8X9O5v2V9qdb_2JbYwgBaR2R3BvuEmD_J8NA8eP9nBHbjSuYHjSMWEZo_fnnMsAq553QDHqAgRr8lcLQ3T20k37rhgxp7s6EYExu1rl0HDMrZOyOqc991kEqTNvElng_1YohrbQkVbkXqedBaZL5gNoLvfxcCu6mTJUL7niG1SNDldUHkAfn3TPbFbB8YOxQjRdOgFnMrjPSb6n7pvrzgwOBp1G0EOLa_XafQ4p1nEaByxPujVi9DnJenP2CKsAjf8=" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">http://sim.law.uu.nl/sim/caselaw/tribunalen.nsf/eea9364f4188dc<br />c0c12571b500379d39/ae9f71c76da782d5c12571fe004be295?OpenDocument</a> (last visited Sept. 20, 2009).</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[40]</a></span> Gorian Sluiter, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">The ICTY and Offenses Against the Administration of Justice</em>, 2(2) J. INT'L CRIM. JUST. 631, 635 (2004) (noting that “the jurisprudence and the Rules offer a confusing picture” with respect to the question of whether a person accused of contempt is entitled to the same degree of protection as a person accused of one or more of the “core crimes”).</p></div><div id="edn11" style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; "><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; "><span class="style38" style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; margin-top: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; "><a rel="nofollow" href="http://ru.mc382.mail.yahoo.com/mc/welcome?.gx=0&.tm=1255149777&.rand=5usjcljit0aoe#_ednref8" name="_edn8" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: underline; color: rgb(144, 33, 71); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">[41]</a></span> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Id.</em> <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">See also</em> Nhu B. Vu, <em style="line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">The Necessity of Maintaining Protective Measures in Balancing the Rights of Victims and the Accused</em>, 4 EYES ON THE ICC 23, 31 (2007).</p></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></span>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-20411214225211044042009-10-10T09:42:00.002+05:002009-10-10T09:46:44.661+05:00United Nations Security Council Resolution 1887 on Maintenance of International Peace and Security: Nuclear Non-Proliferation and Nuclear Disarmament<div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:Arial;font-size:100%;color:#222222;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse: collapse; line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px;font-size:12px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-family:Georgia;font-size:130%;color:#000000;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="border-collapse: separate; line-height: normal; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 0px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 0px;font-size:16px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" border-collapse: collapse; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; font-family:Arial;font-size:12px;"><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><b><br /></b></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102742517912&s=30063&e=001rJOoeEa5Qzizjh91HSLLfrXcF7H3MknpcdNWiLpDy87FJtujoi_TWA1jKIn09GplPbaOK9t5fXGZZ9h3y5tMc5jWcKWNZjjR_FIevRS2G3RLgGnNjUuOsrRfWveAO2ecspeFilVWWVlE5nWGDgwTkQ==" shape="rect" style="line-height: 1.2em; text-decoration: none; color: rgb(8, 36, 101); outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; ">Click here</a> for document (approximately 6 pages)</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">On September 24, 2009, the United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted a United States-sponsored resolution pledging all State Parties to implement necessary steps to create a nuclear-free world, which would improve international stability. </p></span></span></span></span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" border-collapse: collapse; color: rgb(34, 34, 34); line-height: 14px; -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 2px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 2px; font-family:Arial;font-size:12px;"><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br />Among other commitments, the Security Council has called upon all State Parties to comply with all their obligations and fulfill their commitments under the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons (NPT); states not parties to the NPT were asked “to accede to the Treaty” to “achieve its universality.”<br /><br />It is interesting to note that the resolution makes no mention of either Iran or North Korea by name, instead only cites resolutions concerning the countries' nuclear activities. The resolution stresses, in general terms, that “that a situation of non-compliance with non-proliferation obligations shall be brought to the attention of the Security Council, which will determine if that situation constitutes a threat to international peace and security, and emphasizes the Security Council's primary responsibility in addressing such threats”.</p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; "><br /></p><p style="margin-top: 0px; margin-right: 0px; margin-bottom: 0px; margin-left: 0px; padding-top: 0px; padding-right: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; padding-left: 0px; line-height: 1.2em; outline-style: none; outline-width: initial; outline-color: initial; display: block; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: 12px; ">Source: American Association of International Law</p></span></div>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-91614914821143111702009-08-17T20:38:00.002+05:002009-08-17T20:41:54.756+05:00НАТО начинает операцию Ocean Shield у берегов Африканского Рога<span class="Apple-style-span" style=" -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 4px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 4px; "><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">НАТО заявляет о начале в понедельник военно-морской операции "Океанический щит" (Ocean Shield) по борьбе с пиратами у берегов Африканского Рога, сообщает агентство </span><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://redirect.subscribe.ru/state.army.vpn,75668/20090817185546/14179=12762=t1=4979/m14919146/-/www.afp.com/home"><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#000000;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">Франс Пресс</span></span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"> со ссылкой на заявление альянса. </span></span></span><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 4px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 4px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 4px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 4px; "><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">В документе говорится, что "Океанический щит" является своеобразным "преемником" проводимой с весны текущего года операции НАТО "Allied Protector". В рамках новой операции помимо первоочередной задачи - борьбы с пиратством - предполагается также помочь странам региона разрабатывать и предпринимать собственные меры для противодействия пиратам. "Этот компонент операции должен дополнить предпринимаемые в настоящее время международные усилия и способствовать установлению долгосрочной безопасности у берегов Африканского Рога", - говорится в документе. </span></span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 4px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 4px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 4px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 4px; "><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">Командование операцией будет осуществлять постоянный штаб ОВС НАТО в Лиссабоне, а за повседневный тактический контроль будет отвечать командный пункт НАТО в британском Нортвуде. Функции флагманского корабля будет осуществлять британский военный фрегат HMS Cornwall. Также в операции примут участие итальянский сторожевой корабль ITS Libeccio, греческий фрегат HS Navarinon, американский эсминец USS Donald Cook, а также турецкий сторожевой корабль TCG Gediz. </span></span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 4px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 4px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 4px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 4px; "><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">По данным ООН, в 2008 году у берегов Африканского Рога было зарегистрировано более 120 нападений морских разбойников на торговые суда. В регионе проводится также антипиратская военно-морская операция "Аталанта" (Atalanta). Борьбу с пиратами в Аденском заливе, где чаще всего происходят попытки захвата су</span></span><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">дов, ведет коалиция военно-морских сил 16 стран, к которым присоединились ВМС Евросоюза и корабли стран НАТО. Задачи по патрулированию и сопровождению судов в регионе выполняют и корабли ВМФ России. </span></span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style="-webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 4px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 4px;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span class="Apple-style-span" style=" -webkit-border-horizontal-spacing: 4px; -webkit-border-vertical-spacing: 4px; "><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"><span></span></span><span><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">Права на данный материал принадлежат </span><a rel="nofollow" target="_blank" href="http://redirect.subscribe.ru/state.army.vpn,75668/20090817185546/14179=12762=t1=4979/m14919146/-/www.rian.ru/"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="color:#000000;"><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;">РИАНовости</span></span></a><span class="Apple-style-span" style="font-size: small;"> (17.08.2009).</span></span></span></div>Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-33722649147122169862009-08-10T08:49:00.001+05:002009-08-10T08:50:56.120+05:00United Nations Security Council Resolution 1882 on Children and Armed Conflict (4 August 2009)<a href="http://rs6.net/tn.jsp?et=1102664072057&s=30063&e=001t84YyWgeR0bHdMqalo7QGRzSLsFHnBfA8n9i4hO2BoiW1hkCZEKr64XVBXnY8tk_JZGAQmzp5gLeRTcd3M-0_bx3cn8BpB_rE-KZizItSnGJWqI8fp7CvTBPuZ2c7yANkQpmJAGHR0VFYfbdOVc-lw==" target="_blank" shape="rect" rel="nofollow">Click here</a> for document (approximately 5 pages)<br /><br />The United Nations Security Council has adopted resolution 1882 “[s]trongly condemn[ing] all violations of applicable international law involving the recruitment and use of children by parties to armed conflict as well as their re-recruitment, killing and maiming, rape and other sexual violence, abductions, attacks against schools or hospitals and denial of humanitarian access by parties to armed conflict and all other violations of international law committed against children in situations of armed conflict.”<br /><br />The Security Council stressed that national governments played the “primary role” in ensuring the safety and protection of children.<br /><br />Furthermore, the Security Council recalled that the obligation to “end impunity and to prosecute those responsible for genocide, crimes against humanity, war crimes and other egregious crimes perpetrated against children” lies with the individual states. In this respect, the Security Council welcomed the fact that both national and international courts and tribunals have assisted in bringing to justice “several individuals who are alleged to have committed crimes against children in situations of armed conflict.” (One example would be Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, currently being tried before the International Criminal Court.)<br /><br />The Security Council also called “on all parties to armed conflict to comply strictly with the obligations applicable to them under international law for the protection of children in armed conflict, including those contained in the Convention on the Rights of the Child and its Optional Protocol on the involvement of Children in Armed Conflict, as well as the Geneva Conventions of 12th August 1949 and their Additional Protocols of 1977.”<br /><br />Finally, the Security Council requested that all parties concerned, including Member States, the Secretary General, and other United Nations entities, monitor and report on issues related to children and armed conflict.Sergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3193880283878752273.post-32943256794152954392009-08-04T16:51:00.000+05:002009-08-04T16:53:29.746+05:00Иран готов начать производство атомного оружияИран готов приступить к созданию ядерного оружия и ждет только одобрения верховного лидера исламской республики аятоллы Али Хаменеи, пишет в понедельник <a href="http://redirect.subscribe.ru/state.army.vpn,75668/20090803222130/14520=t10=14511=4979/m14919146/-/www.timesonline.co.uk/" target="_blank" rel="nofollow">британская газета Times</a> со ссылкой на источник в разведке США.<br /><br />По данным экспертов американской разведки, Иран приостановил разработку ядерной программы в 2003 году из-за угрозы вторжения вооруженных сил США в соседний Ирак.<br /><br />С момента одобрения верховым лидером, которое необходимо для начала создания ядерного оружия, до завершения процесса обогащения урана пройдет шесть месяцев, и еще полгода потребуется на сборку самой боеголовки, отмечает британское издание.<br /><br />"В том случае если верховный лидер примет решение (создать бомбу), как нам кажется, им необходимо будет обогатить уран на заводе в Натанзе, что займет около шести месяцев - в зависимости от того, сколько центрифуг работает. На данный момент мы не знаем, было ли принято решение", - цитирует газета слова неназванного источника в разведке США.<br /><br />Согласно последним оценкам ЦРУ, Иран может обзавестись ядерным арсеналом в срок от трех до десяти лет. Однако израильские специалисты считают, что Тегеран гораздо ближе к обладанию атомным оружием.<br /><br />Между тем, иранское руководство ранее неоднократно заявляло, что намерено развивать только мирный атом и исключительно для энергетических нужд страны.<br /><br />Как отмечают эксперты американской разведки, несмотря на огромные потери в войне против Ирака в 1980-1988 годах, Иран по-прежнему обладает самыми мощными в регионе вооруженными силами, насчитывающими около 800 тысяч человек.<br /><br />Наибольшую угрозу, согласно сведениям Национального центра авиакосмической разведки Пентагона, представляют приобретенные Тегераном "при содействии Северной Кореи ракеты "Шахаб-3", которые способны нанести удар по Израилю и даже достигать окраин Европы", пишет Times. Собеседники издания полагают, что Иран располагает по меньшей мере 20 установками для запуска таких ракет, которые могут быть оснащены химическими боеголовками и постоянно перемещаются по стране с целью затруднить их обнаружение.<br /><br />3.08.2009<br /><br />Права на данный материал принадлежат РИАНовостиSergey Sayapinhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/06230347128113760426noreply@blogger.com0